Identity formation

Identity formation is a term used to describe the multifaceted process through which people build their sense of self, or identity. Also known as identity development or identity construction, the process can include multiple layers and stages for each individual, influenced by numerous internal and external factors.

Throughout human history, attempts to understand the nature of self and identity have been many, spanning the breadth of the social and behavioral sciences. Self and identity are not only important to the academic world, but also to understanding a wide array of personal and social problems in daily life. Moreover, issues of identity have become crucial to marketing and technological research. Scholars in many fields have therefore focused much attention on how identity is formed.

There are several prominent theories of identity formation, but most focus on how the process is particularly powerful during adolescence. As young people begin to develop their sense of self, they experience both individuation, or the process of learning what makes them unique, and a heightened need to fit in. This tends to lead to experimentation with different roles in various social settings, such as home, school, sports, church, and others. Factors such as gender, sexuality, ethnicity, class, and ability, as well as specific personal experiences, can all contribute to an individual's sense of identity, whether positively or negatively. While aspects of identity can continue to evolve throughout life, researchers consider initial identity formation during adolescence crucial to self-concept and personality development.

Background

The nature of the self—what it is and how it works—has been a human preoccupation since ancient times. It was not until the twentieth century, however, with the rise of modern psychology, that researchers began to formalize many of the influential concepts of self and identity formation. Among the most important theories that have sought to explain identity are the theory of psychosocial development and the identity status theory.

Psychosocial development, also known as Erikson’s identity theory after psychoanalyst Erik H. Erikson, presents eight stages of development and was the first to name the concept of “identity crisis.” The stage of identity crisis for adolescents presents a mix of earlier childhood developmental stages and anticipation of future roles. It is normal for adolescents to experience role confusion. Adolescents need to explore and experiment in order to solve the crisis and reach a stable sense of identity. During this stage, adolescents try to understand who they are and what makes them unique, and create an identity for the future. This helps them build relationships and adapt to the adult world. If this crisis remains unresolved, individuals will remain confused about their identity and the role they should play in adult society.

Identity status theory, also known as Marcia’s “identity status paradigm” after psychologist James Marcia, focuses on two crucial elements of Erikson’s theory: crisis (the exploration and selection of identity alternatives in different social arenas) and commitment (after choosing among various identity-defining alternatives, engaging in activities to implement these choices). This theory argues that an adolescent’s identity can be classified into one of four identity statuses. Statuses are related to the degree of exploration of alternatives and commitment to different roles and values, such as sexuality, religion, and occupation. These are diffusion (low on exploration and low on commitment), foreclosure (low on exploration but high on commitment), moratorium (high on exploration but not strong commitments), and achievement (high on commitment following a phase of considerable exploration). Experts agree that diffusion is the least adaptive status, foreclosure and moratorium are intermediate, and achievement is the most adaptive status of all. Upon reaching identity achievement, an individual has made commitments to the purpose and values of their life and has resolved identity crisis issues.

Overview

The late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have brought major advances in the scientific and social understanding of self and identity. It is now widely accepted that being unique is at the center of human identity, and that identity is fragmentary rather than unified. The period of adolescence, which bridges from older childhood to young adulthood, is considered by many experts as core to the formation or construction of an adult identity. Adolescents experience a heightened desire to belong and want to fit in with their social environments by assimilating to different degrees. This does not necessarily mean the rejection of home values and culture, as much as a negotiation process. After all, parental influence and the relationship individuals have with their parents play a crucial role in identity formation.

Some researchers have proposed that in many modern cultures, individuals feel less pressure than ever before in having to conform to a homogenous identity. Adolescents do not always have to choose rigidly between two or more sets of values or identities. For example, in multicultural societies such as in the United States, being bicultural—having the ability to function in more than one culture—is sometimes considered a social advantage. Cultural identity is one important element of identity, and its evolving meaning in an increasingly globalized world has the potential to significantly reshape certain aspects of traditional identity formation. Cultural identity also intersects in complex ways with other factors such as ethnic identity, religious identity, national identity, and political identity.

Identity issues are not confined to the individual level. They feature prominently in popular culture, media, and even legislative issues. For example, television talk shows and reality shows include frequent discussion of self and identity issues, and literary analysis of self-identity is popular in both fiction and nonfiction. The influence of the media in the identity formation of children and adolescents is considered highly important by many researchers and cultural commentators, especially as the relationship between societal views and self-conceptions is increasingly mediated by mass-media technologies. Debate over the complex, dynamic interplay between identity formation and constantly evolving social forces has also often drawn political attention. For instance, at a broad level, the competition between conservative and liberal political groups frequently includes disagreement on concepts of identity and how society can or should strive to influence identity development. Indeed, many scholars have viewed the rise of identity politics as a key social factor of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries.

These concepts have also moved to the forefront of the social sciences in the scholarly and academic world as material of study and activism, in management in organizational settings, and for marketing purposes. In order to function successfully, organizations—both in the public and private arenas—increasingly take into account the varying identities of their members and of the public they serve. Business leaders often discuss professional identity formation, or how people often go through additional stages of development as they find their place in the workforce. Growing public attention to issues of identity has also contributed to greater awareness of discriminatory practices in all manner of settings. Identity formation theories, then, offer the possibility for practical applications that help solve complex individual and societal problems.

Bibliography

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Hoover, Kenneth, et al. The Future of Identity: Centennial Reflections on the Legacy of Erik Erikson. Lexington, 2013.

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