Instructional Design

Abstract

This article discusses the practice of instructional design (ID), also referred to as instructional systems design. ID is defined as any process aimed at the creation of instructional education, typically with the objective of improving some aspect such as efficiency or appeal to students. The practice of ID involves establishing the goal of the instruction and what the learner requires and developing a suitable framework to bridge between the two. The history of the field is discussed, as are contemporary influences and trends such as the increasing prevalence of technology in learning environments.

Overview

The expansion of computer technology and virtual classrooms for training and education requires a systematic process for planning, organization, and development of the learning event. This systematic process is useful in all learning environments but has become, in a way, much more important in the distance learning settings, given that many activities develop in asynchronous form without need of the teacher's presence at all steps of the process. An instructional design model requires thoughtful organization and a clear design that enables educators and learners to navigate the system successfully. Within this process the educator, an expert versed in a variety of strategies and methods, plays a fundamental role as a mediator and guide of the learning process and its related material.

When an educator plans a course, they follow a conscious process to create effective learning experiences. It is of crucial importance that the person in charge of designing didactic materials and educational strategies for the course have access to appropriate models to guide this process. ID requires the development of steps or phases that serve as the theoretical underpinnings and criteria for this process.

Various definitions exist for ID, also known as Instructional Systems Design. As a disciplinary field, it is related to curricula development and educational technology. It is prevalent in the field of work training and due to its flexibility and basic step-by-step design, may also be adapted to K-12 learning environments and computer-mediated coursework. Whatever the format, most ID plans are mainly concerned with two main factors—the learners and the course objectives.

There are also many current interpretations for the scope of ID and its models. For some, ID serves to plan, prepare, and design the space and resources by which the learning experience will take place. Others define ID as the discipline concerned with prescribing and optimizing instructional methods as it interactively helps build up the learners' knowledge and skills. ID is also considered as a technique used to establish detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, maintenance, and facilitation of small and large educational content units to different levels of complexity. Finally, beyond its theoretical and technical aspects, ID is considered as the art and applied science of creating an environment of learning and its materials, in a clear and effective manner, to assist learners in developing their ability to reach specific goalposts. The most common definition of ID, then, is a systematic planning project that includes the development, evaluation, implementation, and maintenance of materials and programs that are necessary for training or learning experiences to develop in an optimal and successful way.

Applications

A wide variety of ID theoretical concepts exist, which are expressed throughout ID models that serve to guide instructors and educators by systematizing the development process of learning experiences. The field of ID is interdisciplinary. ID models are often based upon learning and psychological theories prevalent at different periods starting from the mid-twentieth century.

In the 1960s, models were more narrowly based on constructivist views, which are lineal and prescriptive. These focused on academic skills and measurable and observable objectives. They included very specific steps such as goal identification, behavioral objectives, observable results, pre-established evaluation criteria, building knowledge from the simple to complex, and activities based on stimulus and response. This system served as one of the foundations of new views of Systems Theory of the 1970s, which added the notion of open systems and welcomed student participation.

The 1980s gave way to cognitive theories, less focused on behavioral outputs and more concerned with learning processes. New ID models incorporated cognitive processes, such as problem-solving, conceptualization, and processing information. ID developed a series of principles, which included an emphasis on meaning-making, and a more expansive participation of students in their own learning processes. The creation of stimulating learning spaces and building bridges between existing and new concepts were some of the novel concepts incorporated at the time.

Closer to the twenty-first century, constructivist and systems theories developed further and became more holistic or encompassing. Constructivist theories of learning became more important. Constructivist views emphasize the role of the learner. Rather than centering the process on specific content and outcomes, it focuses on the learning process and creativity. The premise that guides ID at this stage is the construction of knowledge as subjective and from experience; in other words, learning as a personal interpretation of the world, as opposed to one based on stimuli and response. Therefore, the best learning is holistic and built by integrating multiple perspectives in collaboration with others. Constructivist methods, then, consider the learners' previous or existing knowledge and beliefs, to motivate them.

Later ID models emphasize the importance, during the learning experience, of research and selection of relevant information and developing the ability of analysis and synthesis. Strategies are tailored for meaningful learning, development of necessary skills for future growth and learning, teamwork, and collaborative knowledge, and developing social skills, such as empathy, responsibility, and leadership.

Some of the elements of modern ID tenets used in computer-mediated learning are developed in a theory called Connectivism developed by George Siemens. Connectivism emphasizes personal knowledge as individualized and within a network that both feeds and is fed by institutional and organizational systems, in a continuous loop of feedback and information.

Instructional Development Models. Several prevalent ID models are based on ADDIE and Gagné's model. Gagné is an integrative model which includes aspects from theories such as information processing theory and stimulus-response. Gagné established a set of basic functions by which the learning process occurs, which includes elements of stimulation and motivation, existing knowledge and skills, facilitating memory, and providing feedback. Among models that evolved from the Gagné and ADDIE models are the Dick and Carey Model and the Gagné-Briggs, among others.

ADDIE. The ADDIE model, from which many others evolve, is a basic ID model that counts with five phases: Analysis. The problem is identified, and the skill and existing knowledge of the learner assessed. Design. Establishes learning objectives and develops a learning program that includes lesson plans, media, material selection, etc. At this stage, a map or blueprint is developed for the course. Development. Learning material and content selection is developed according to the guidelines and goals established in the design phase. In the case of a distance learning, b-learning, or e-learning project, for example, this would include the selection and combination of adequate programs and technology. Implementation. This phase serves to train the project educators or instructors, if necessary, according to the curricula, learning objectives, selected activities, materials, and so on. Evaluation. The last phase is divided into two steps. The first is formative, and it is part of all five ADDIE stages. The second step, known as summative evaluation, provides measures to assess outcomes and feedback. These are gathered to implement and enact changes that lead to improvement.

Gagné's Nine Levels of Learning. Along with ADDIE, this model, also commonly known as Gagné's Model, is one of the most important in the ID field. Commonly considered a behaviorist model, it is concerned with the behaviors or outcomes of training and learning processes. Gagné focused on nine mental conditions for learning, which he called the Events of Instruction. These are Reception or gaining attention; Expectancy or letting learners know what the expectations are; Retrieval of prior learning; Selective perception or presentation of stimuli; Semantic encoding or providing guidance; Response; Providing feedback or reinforcement; Assessing performance; and Enhancing Retention.

The Dick and Carey Model. This system, developed in 1978 by Walter Dick and Lou Carey, is based on the relation between a stimulus and response. Stimuli take place by way of learning material, and response by learning the content provided. Both stimulus and response are predictable, dependable, and measurable. The ID designer must identify the abilities and skills to be learned and select a teaching strategy. In other words, this model is concerned with specific skills and the conditions for their learning.

The Gagné Briggs Model. This model follows Gagné's postulates, adding five more steps for a total of fourteen basic steps. A more complex model, it incorporates an analysis of needs, objectives, and priorities, as well as of resources, restrictions, and distribution systems. It also sets goals and sequences for the courses and curricula.

The Assure Model. Based on constructivist theory, it considers learner characteristics and learning styles, encouraging active learner participation. Assure is divided in six phases: Analysis of learner characteristics, including existing knowledge, skills, and preferences; Learning objectives and expected results; Selection of adequate media, technology, and instructional methods and material; Organization of the learning environment, which can be an actual space, such as a classroom, or on the Internet, such as a virtual classroom; Encouraging participation through learning strategies and teamwork; Evaluation, assessment, and review and results of the learning experience. It is important, in this model, to incorporate "lessons learned" into future projects.

The Jonassen Model. Created in the late 1990s, the Jonassen model is based on constructivism, which focuses on the role of the learner in the construction of knowledge. Its strategy is rooted in answering a question, offering case studies and projects, by which learners must find a solution focusing on the context and problem-solving skills. It requires sharing related experiences so learners may find connections and build knowledge from their experiences. It is also based on providing cognitive and collaboration toolkits, such as collaborative, teamwork, and computer-mediated learning, for example.

Other Modern Models. Modern models are based on technical, pedagogical platforms. In designing a virtual classroom and technologically mediated learning experiences, experts emphasize two main basic concepts that must serve as the project's underpinnings: the technological and the pedagogical. The technical aspect includes the selection of technological tools adequate to the specific learning process, analyzing its features and limitations. These can include the platform, software applications, multimedia resources, and others. They must also be motivational and adequate to the learners' skill level. The pedagogical foundation requires understanding the learners' relevant personality characteristics, an analysis of learning objectives and skills, development and implementation of content and learning activities, and the preparation of systems to present the content and evaluate results.

Other popular models include Action Mapping, Bloom's Learning Taxonomy, Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Training Evaluation, and many others. ID models, then, combine behaviorist, constructivist, and cognitive theories of learning with myriad other disciplines and strategies, such as social sciences, systems theory, telecommunications, and multimedia, among others. It also includes designing and offering the most appropriate solutions for different types of learning, always aiming at continuously improved results. Therefore, the expert in charge of designing an ID project, course, or event, must be well versed and experienced in theoretical background and practical methodologies, as well as count with well-developed people skills to optimize the learning experience designed.

The Instructional Designer. An effective ID expert can analyze and visualize all the structural elements of a formative program, be it academic or a training event, by adding the optimal strategies and solutions for each learning experience. Therefore, it usually requires a person to learn pedagogical methods, educational psychology, distance education, teamwork processes, and so on. The modern ID field expert must also be capable of creating adequate didactic materials sets and virtual learning environments; he or she should be concerned with developing the following skill set:

• Technical skills that allow the adaptation of contents for distance and virtual learning.
• In-depth knowledge of teaching materials and how to adapt them in classrooms mediated by technology when necessary. Moreover, it is crucial to be able to develop teaching materials when those that are required are not available.
• Theoretical knowledge. The capability of assessing the advantages and disadvantages of using, on a case-by-case basis, a wide variety of learning environments, strategies, models, and materials.
• Pedagogical knowledge and ability to assess timeframes and the development of some activities and materials compared to others, so that he or she may be able to select the best solution for each case.
• Facility with specific software for material design in different formats, such as text, hypertext, multimedia, PowerPoint, and others.
• Theoretical knowledge is necessary to implement diverse methods aimed at knowledge construction.
• Evaluation skills and knowledge about tabulating, evaluating, and analyzing learning processes.

Cathy Moore, one of the foremost experts in last generation ID, has developed a road map for gaining knowledge and experience as an instructional designer. Effective instructional designers are skillful in the following:

• Analyzing a specific problem and finding a solution.
• Creating guidelines or "mapping out" a strategy for training or educational coursework.

Creative development of the appropriate media for the content and the learner group. Some fields offer the possibility of concentrating in one area of the ID field. People come with different skill sets and talents. Some ID experts prefer to focus on the design aspect, while others may prefer to develop and create instructional media and material. To specialize in one aspect of ID is possible, especially for those who can work for organizations that are large enough to provide different instructional teams and collaborators. On the other hand, not all companies and educational centers are large enough to create separate departments to allow such levels of specialization. Therefore, an instructional designer must be able to develop all or most aspects of an ID program and be prepared to be "hands on" about it.

Although it is not imperative to have a higher education degree to become an effective instructional designer, the field of ID has become a rapidly growing academic field, and many universities and education centers offer opportunities to graduate as an ID professional.

Issues

ID is a growing field and is rapidly gaining track across contemporary learning environments. It includes learning modes such as b-learning, e-learning, and others, based on computer-mediated instruction. One of the reasons for its fast expansion is the widespread development of different models and fields for online learning worldwide; these include the field of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Across many industries, from manufacturing plants to police departments and corporate headquarters, ID has gained great importance in the novel landscape of training and employee education. The new educational arena creatively conflates technological and pedagogical models and media, and theoretical frameworks are constantly developing to catch up with this new field. Experts in online learning posit that ID in the context of computer-mediated and virtual learning focuses on a few key areas, such as the learning process, tasks and activities, resources, participation, and assessment. In other words, the basic elements of ID remain, and are continuously adapted to the evolving field of education and education. New and exciting challenges continue to arise, such as adapting the ID learning process to MOOC students around the world, who must learn from the standpoint of a different culture, environment, and even language.

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic that began in March 2020 complicated school curriculums and instructional design due to the abrupt switch to remote learning. As such, many instructors needed to educate their students virtually while also learning best practices for the medium on the fly. Over the following years, classrooms slowly returned to in-person or hybrid learning, but the impact of the pandemic continued to be felt.

ID is the blueprint or map, then, which guides both educators and learners in the instructional process. For this reason, it is necessary to be skillful and thoughtful in selecting the methods appropriate to the objective. ID is also a foundation that guarantees that the technology will not take over the learning process and that the pedagogical aspect remains a priority.

Terms & Concepts

B-learning: Also known as blended learning, it is a formal educational strategy that blends electronic learning with more traditional educational approaches.

Constructivism: Related to Behaviorism, a theoretical approach that focuses on human behavior and reactions, rather than mental states.

E-learning: Using electronic technologies, usually the Internet, for learning and training purposes.

Pedagogy: The formal academic field of teaching and learning.

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Suggested Reading

Carnahan, C. (2014). Effective online K–12 course design and learning theory. Global Education Journal, 12, 60–71. Retrieved March 11, 2015, from EBSCO Education Research Complete.

Chen, S. (2014). Instructional design strategies for intensive online courses: An objectivist-constructivist blended approach. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 13(1), 72–86. Retrieved March 9, 2015, from EBSCO Education Research Complete.

Hillen S., & Landis, M. (2014). Two perspectives on e-learning design: A synopsis of a U.S. and European Analysis. International Review of Research in Distance and Open Learning, 15(4), 199–225. Retrieved March 10, 2015, from EBSCO Education Research Complete.

McGuire, J.M. (2014). Universally accessible education: Oxymoron or opportunity? Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 27(4), 387–398. Retrieved March 11, 2015, from EBSCO Education Research Complete.

McMurthy, K. (2014). Review of the instructional design knowledge base: Theory, research and practice. Techtrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 58(3), 97–99. Retrieved March 10, 2015, from EBSCO Education Research Complete.

Rothwell, W. J. (2016). Mastering the instructional design process: A systematic approach (5th ed.). Wiley.

Sugar, W. (2014). Development and formative evaluation of multimedia case studies for instructional design and technology. TechTrends, Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning, 58(5), 36–52. Retrieved March 11, 2015, from EBSCO Education Research Complete.