Language and Gender

Abstract

Language constructs and expresses the lived experience of human beings. As such, it reveals and maintains ideological attitudes toward gender in different cultures and societies. Language users communicate by a variety of means and texts, which include speech, writing, gestures, visual aids, and other forms. Modern ways by which people deploy language, besides face-to-face, include mass media and computer-mediated channels of communication. All of these are employed in the service of language and are used in ways in which people reflect their sex and ascribed gender role expectations. Scholars have investigated this relationship between language and gender from numerous angles.

Overview

Language makes communication possible among living beings. In the case of humans, this process is profoundly developed and complex. Many different kinds and styles of language exist, which allow for the ability to select, organize, combine, and share concepts of different levels of complexity. Human beings use language to communicate, and these languages can include written, spoken, nonverbal-gestured or performed-and technologically mediated forms of communication. People must also use language in order to think, which means that language transmits societal structures and values, shaping people's understanding of the world.

Experts divide language into three technical categories: form, content, and use. These in turn are further divided into other categories, such as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics, which are useful in order to study and analyze the process of language. The categories are often used in order to understand the ways in which people communicate according to region, ethnicity, class, gender, and groupings. Languages are more than repositories of words with specific meanings. They are tools used to express highly abstract ideas, emotions, and mental states. Languages are constructed according to a particular culture and, also, an individual's set of experiences. Ideologies are embedded in all languages, their structures and vocabulary; these are tied to cultural notions of gender. While it can be an instrument of oppression or dominance, language may also be a vehicle for resistance and transformation.

Academic fields have developed that study the relationship of language and society, a subset of which is the study of language and gender. This pursuit usually divides into two main tracks: the study of sexism as the dominant vision of society and the relations between genders as an asymmetry of power, and the study of feminine and masculine sociolects; that is, ways of speaking used by women and men, and stereotypes about how men and women use language. Linguistic differences across genders reflect the existence of social differences, particularly in the balance of power between women and men. Some experts argue that in advanced countries, such as in the United States, these differences show a tendency toward slow but steady change, linked to greater empowerment and education among women, and a growing rejection of gender-related social and linguistic stereotypes. In other words, unjust balances of power are increasingly challenged, encouraging a greater democratization of language.

Further Insights

Research Findings. A variety of academic fields study the ways in which men and women use language. Most stem from the premise that languages employ strategies that perpetuate male dominance, conceal the participation of women in society, further stereotypes, and silence subjectivities. The goal is to evaluate if, in fact, there are instances of sexism in language and to understand the ways by which it becomes manifest. For example, a common example is found in the ways in which in several cultures, including the United States, the marital status of women is marked by the denominations of "Miss" and "Mrs.," whereas men are addressed simply as "Mr." A measure to democratize that situation in the English language is using the term "Ms." for women who prefer not to declare their marital status. Another common example of sexism in language is the use of masculine terms for neutral concepts, such as using the term "man" to refer to all of humanity.

Sexist language appears in all sorts of media on a daily basis, including advertising, film, print media, and others. Significantly, it disseminates specific roles for men and women, as respectively dominant and passive. As many studies have shown mass media have myriad ways of perpetuating sexism. While representing women in newsprint, for instance, the press tends to focus on women according to family relations, marital status, and physical attractiveness. The representation of men is focused on professional and personal achievements. In another instance, research has found that the gender-specific "he" appears with significant frequency to refer to generic people, as well as to masculine subjects. Such prevalence makes it likely that students of both sexes are positioned to interpret mainstream culture and history as a universally masculine subject.

Awareness of these issues, brought about by activism and a corpus of academic studies, has reduced sexism in language and helped create a difference in how women and men communicate. However, language differences remain in the styles, ways, and speech strategies of women and men. As long as these differences are not based on power asymmetries, some experts posit, they can both be beneficial to organizations and other spheres of daily life.

Another field of study in linguistics as pertains to gender looks at the lexicon; that is, the vocabulary used by women and men. For example, a higher frequency of positive value adjectives such as "adorable," "divine," and "lovely" are more common in women's speech than in men's, as is the use of superlatives and diminutives. Studies in the field of language and gender have also discovered that women use more courtesy forms and less imperative formulations than do men, as well as tag questions which signal a request for confirmation and approval, such as ending sentences in "isn't it?" or "right?" Women are also more likely to use fillers such as "uhhh" and hedge terms such as "probably" and "it seems," as opposed to the more assertive styles of speech used by men. Therefore, linguistic dynamics often convey internalized ideas about gender roles in society.

Research Areas. There are many topics of research within the field of language and gender. Some feminist scholars study the stereotyped gender differences that frequently drive women to internalize oppressive mainstream roles. Scholars also examine gender attitudes through language, for example, identifying behaviors driven by societal expectations of women and men. Other scholarly projects explore the ways in which women typically communicate-in more holistic and community-oriented ways than men, for example-and highlight how these differences can be employed productively. Still others identify the ways in which women resist or rebel oppressive expectations, by examining their language styles.

Some studies examine behaviors in mixed-company conversations. Studies show that men often marginalize women within conversations. This is accomplished by a series of behaviors such as interrupting women more often than interrupting other men and ignoring the efforts of women when they want to change the topic of conversation. Moreover, women are found to interrupt other women more than they do men; this is interpreted by experts as an internalization of the male power structure by women. On the other hand, some scholars do not tie these behaviors directly to issues of structural power; they explain that men and women belong to different groups or subcultures and, as such, expect different things from a conversation. For instance, men place much more value on personal independence and status marking, whereas women are more interested in developing close connections in order to build a sense of solidarity. In short, they argue, differences in language may owe more to a complexity of factors than just the workings of ideology and power.

Scientists and scholars posit that language shapes one's understanding of the world as well as one's identity. Therefore, language differentials reflect and support the subordinate role of women and serve to entrench male privilege. These dynamics, of course, also occur across class lines, generations, cultures, and many other social groups. It is through language that individuals shape their identity and relationships with others. Researching and understanding language and the ways in which language, power, culture, and gender interact, then, are crucial factors in eliminating disadvantage.

Studies in Academia. Scholars and scientists began to examine the structure, sounds, gestures, and meaning-making of language in the 1940s, gradually developing a field dedicated to exploring the relationship between language, society, culture, and human development. Starting in the 1960s, women began to analyze and question social practices that enable gender discrimination behaviors. Their goal was to eliminate gender inequalities. As the formal study of language and gender developed, several important works were published, such as Robin Lakoff's seminal "Language and Woman's Place" (2004). Lakoff posits that there are linguistics elements that appear more frequently in women's speech. These characteristics may increase in the presence of men and reflect feelings of fear, insecurity, and a sense of de-legitimization; women may be unaware or only semi-aware of these behaviors, and use them as coping mechanisms. The work of other scholars, such as feminist linguist Luce Irigaray, finds that often when they speak, women diminish their statements in order to avoid the role of agency; that is, in a sense, to avoid assuming responsibility for their affirmations and actions.

Some experts have developed ways to challenge language ideology by changing the body of language, proposing new or alternative forms, lexicon, and grammatical structures. Some have been more successful than others. Some common examples are the following. Changes in the prevalence of using the masculine pronoun for neutral subjects can be done by using "one" or "he or she" instead of "he"; for example, "One should always do one's best". Another example is the common saying "To each his own," which can be replaced by "To each his or her own." Others suggest writing sentences without a masculine or feminine pronoun: "The average employee is worried about promotions" or using the plural, as in "Students can form their own teams."

There are, however, some who complain that many of such changes proposed create a sense of awkwardness to the ear and do not flow easily. Therefore, relatively few changes have been adopted by a significant amount of people. Some changes that became commonly used are the feminine form of occupational terms. For example, the feminine form of "actor" used to be "actress," but today "actor" is most commonly used for both sexes. The term "stewardess" was replaced by the gender-neutral "flight attendant" as more men joined the ranks of airline service jobs. The use of male suffixes for occupations formerly identified solely with males is also declining, such as, for example, "chairperson" or simply "chair" having replaced "chairman," and "police officer" now being preferred to "policeman".

Among the most important fields of academic and organizational study and debate is language on the Internet. In an Internet-mediated environment, studies find, differences in communication style according to gender also appear. Recent studies on online discussions for computer-mediated courses have found that men and women use the medium differently. While women ask more questions than their male counterparts, they respond to fewer questions than men and when they do, are more likely to do so anonymously. As in face-to-face interaction, men tend to communicate instrumentally, that is, to accomplish objectives, whereas women generally communicate with the goal of establishing rapport. The communication styles of women in the Internet focus on building bridges and maintaining connections and support, and are more prone to offer expressions of empathy. Men, in general, focus on getting information, discovering facts, and recommending solutions for problem solving. These male and female patterns are both useful in terms of problem solving, and experienced managers know how to make them work to best advantage in the workplace, and how to address them in order to create a communication process in which participants from all genders may contribute equally.

The grammar structures evidenced by men and women reflect deeper patterns of coping with the world. Women find counterarguments less easy to deal with and employ avoidance or conciliating strategies, while men are more prone to engage in vigorous debate of conflicting opinions. In short, the ways in which people communicate in the Internet correlate with their gender styles in face to face interaction. Moreover, studies also suggest that in Internet interactions, gender stereotypes may be reinforced. The one piece of demographic information people feel most comfortable sharing in the Internet is gender. In the absence of any other information during computer-mediated exchanges, gender becomes more salient than usual, and people will rely on gender identification alone, with no nuances gleaned from age, profession, ethnicity, and other variables. Other studies, however, have found that despite the replication of gender patterns of communication in the Internet, there is a gradual change, and more convergence than there used to be in language style during Internet exchanges.

Viewpoints

Language can serve to perpetuate oppression as well as to emancipate, and these dynamics cross through social factors of class and gender, among others. Scientists and scholars do not share a single way of doing things, including agreeing upon strategies for language analysis and reform. Some state that sexist structures in society will gradually disappear as other inequalities are eliminated. Others insist on the need for action, as sexism continues to entrench a predominantly male vision of society, obscuring the contributions of women and hindering their access to power. Scholars disagree to different extents on the issue, as well as to how it all works and what to do about it. Most agree, however, that discriminatory structures do exist in language.

There is also a prevalent understanding that discrimination against women is not going to disappear just because sexist practices in language have been identified and eliminated; most experts argue that these changes must occur together with deeper structural changes. The issue goes beyond simple binaries of male and female, as they must also take into account complex issues pertaining to members of the increasingly empowered Lesbian Gay Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) community, who also suffer the impact of gender-related discrimination.

There has been notable progress, especially in written language. The gradual disappearance of the word "man" in order to identify all people around the world, and the neutralization of occupational terms are common examples. Experts continue to prove that language can guide and influence individual and collective behavior. It is important to note that just because there is sexism in language does not mean that all language is sexist in itself. Individuals and groups often shape and re-shape language in order to promote emancipating concept and identities; for example, the term "queer," which used to be used as a pejorative term, was turned around to denote a political identity. Nevertheless, careful assessment of common language will show that sexism survives in terms and turns of phrases so commonly used, their discriminatory nature often passes unnoticed.

Languages are dynamic and ever-changing; they constantly incorporate innovations that reflect changes in society and culture. Each of these leaves a footprint about its context, place, and time. Although these patterns reflect generalities, allowances must be made for differences in culture, social class, ethnicity, nationality, age, education, and many other variables. Language styles change as gender roles evolve. Among the issues that hinder change, as many sociologists posit, is the frequency and severity by which breaks with gender role expectations are socially penalized in a community. It is expected then, that as societies become more open, differences related to power and rigid role expectations will transform and be reflected in the communicational styles across genders.

Terms & Concepts

Discourse: Although there are various definitions for discourse, in academic and professional circles it usually refers to all aspects of language in a discipline or field, such as political discourse, religious discourse, etc. It is understood to reflect the workings of a prevailing ideology.

Gender: The cultural differences between males and females; it differs from biological markers of sex. It also includes other than male or female identifications, such as transgender and queer.

Sexism: Prejudice and discrimination on the basis of sex, usually against women.

Bibliography

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Chang, C. (2014). Responses to conflicting information in computer-mediated communication: Gender difference as an example. New Media & Society. 1–20.

Cortes, J. C, & Pichler, P. (2011). Language and Gender: A Reader. 2nd edition. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Eckert, P., & McConnell-Ginet, S. (2013). Language and Gender. 2nd edition. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Eisenchlas, S. A. (2013). Gender roles and expectations. Any changes online? SAGE Open, 3. 1-11.

Hancock, A. B. & Rubin, B. A. (2015). Influence of communication partner's gender on language. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 1, 46–64. Retrieved March 22, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://searchebscohost.com/loginaspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=99752759&site=ehost-live

Lakoff, R. T. (2004). Language and Woman's Place. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Robb, A. (2014, May 14). Women get interrupted more—even by other women. Retrieved January 1, 2015 from http://www.newrepublic.com/article/117757/gender-language-differences-women-get-interrupted-more

Palomares, N. A. (2009). Women are sort of more tentative than men, aren't they?: How men and women use tentative language differently, similarly, and counterstereotypically as a function of gender salience. Communication Research, 4. 538–560. Retrieved March 22, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=43426741&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Coates, J. (2016). Women, men and language: A sociolinguistic account of gender differences in language. New York, NY: Routledge.

Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2014) A giant leap for mankind. But what about women? The role of system-justifying ideologies in predicting attitudes toward sexist language. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 33, 667–680. Retrieved January 5, 2015 from EBSCO Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=99334840&site=ehost-live

Kuhn, E. A., & Ute, G (2014). Actual and potential gender-fair language use: The role of language competence and the motivation to use accurate language. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 33, 214–225. Retrieved January 5, 2015 from EBSCO Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=94502665&site=ehost-live

Malgorzata, I, & Pytlarz, J. (2012). The issue of gender in multiple language acquisition. Brno Studies in English, 38, 5–22. Retrieved January 5, 2015 from EBSCO Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=83455881&site=ehost-live