Psychodynamic theory

Psychodynamic theory is a psychological theory that attempts to explain the ways in which personality is constructed, with particular attention to how the conscious and unconscious minds work. First proposed by Sigmund Freud, psychodynamic theory posits three components of the personality: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is concerned only with wants and desires in the here and now, regardless of practical considerations. The ego negotiates between the desires of the id and the reality of the outside world. The superego or conscience guides the choices the ego makes by imposing moral judgments as well as other rules absorbed from the outside world, such as manners and etiquette, the need to obey rules and laws, and concern for the feelings of others. Psychodynamic theory has been further developed by Freud’s followers and later psychoanalysts, not all of whom retain Freud’s original terminology.

Brief History

Austrian physician Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed the techniques and theories of psychoanalysis at his practice in Vienna in the late nineteenth century. Psychoanalysis encompasses both a theoretical approach to the mind and a set of associated therapeutic techniques, and there are various distinct schools of thought within the field. Common among them are the emphases placed on the role of early childhood events in the development of an individual, the influence of the unconscious mind’s irrational drives on an individual’s thoughts and attitudes, and the dynamics between the conscious and unconscious mind (hence psychodynamic theory). Much of Freud’s original terminology and explanation is considered dated if taken literally; the term "psychodynamics" is based on thermodynamics, a significant area of nineteenth-century physics, and meant to evoke the idea of conservation of energy. In this case, the energy is a mental energy Freud called the libido. Though neuroscience has shown that there is no literal exchange of energy to be observed in the sense that Freud described it, this does not discount his theories; it only dates his language to a time marked by incomplete scientific knowledge.

By the middle of the twentieth century, psychodynamics had been further developed by Freud’s colleagues Carl Jung and Alfred Adler, and the term "psychodynamic theory" had displaced "psychodynamics." Another key figure in developing the theory was Melanie Klein, one of the most influential psychoanalysts after Freud’s death and the first to work with young children. In contrast, Freud’s theories on children—and those of his daughter Anna, who after his death was widely considered his successor in the informal Freudian school—were informed mainly by adult patients’ recollections of their childhoods. The one area where Klein truly departed from Freud was in her belief that the superego is, like the id, present from birth; Freud believed it developed later in life, which accounted for the apparent amorality of children.

Klein’s work had a deep impact on the development of psychodynamic theory’s therapeutic implementation, and on object relations theory, which grew out of psychodynamics. Object relations theory suggests that the ways in which an individual relates to other people are affected by experiences in infancy, which are retained as "objects" by the unconscious.

Overview

The libido is also called the sex drive. In psychoanalysis, it is considered an instinctive desire that predates any biological capacity for sexual activity, manifesting in the baby’s desire to nurse and the toddler’s pride in controlling bowel movements. (Libidinal drives pass through other stages as well, and later psychoanalysts further subdivided Freud’s model.) These drives are the desires of the id, or unconscious mind, but pursuit of desire without regard to consequence is at odds with the superego—the conscience—which results in the intervention of the ego in an attempt to satisfy both the id and the superego.

One way the ego may achieve this is by repressing or sublimating the id’s desires. In psychoanalysis, sublimation is the process by which the ego redirects the energy of a desire considered either unacceptable or unrealizable into a different, more acceptable or realizable desire. One classic example is sexual sublimation, in which the sexual desires of individuals forbidden by the superego to have sex—for instance, because they are unmarried individuals in a highly moralistic society, or because they have taken vows of celibacy—are channeled into creative energy instead. There is a long history of Western monasteries producing great works of music, poetry, and philosophy. Another example is found in Agatha Christie’s novel And Then There Were None (1939), which features as one of its victims a man who sublimated his homicidal impulses by becoming a judge with the power to sentence criminals to death. One of the goals of psychoanalysis is to bring these sublimated or repressed desires to the surface and acknowledge them.

Sublimation and repression are both examples of ego defense mechanisms, which are the ego’s ways of coping with the conflict between the id’s impulses and what is possible given the limitations of the real world and the superego’s moral judgment. Other common defenses include regression, in which the individual retreats to an earlier mental state from before the unacceptable impulse; reaction formation, in which the ego responds to the impulse by creating behaviors displaying the opposite impulse (a classic example is that of someone feeling their first same-sex attraction responding with a combination of repression and reaction formation by displaying aggressively heterosexual behavior); and projection, in which the individual responds to the impulse by believing it is not they who feels it but everyone else around them. While these defenses can be unhealthy, many of them are considered healthy when they manifest in response to fleeting impulses that do not recur. More extreme defenses can include delusions, acting out as the id attempts to realize its desires, the development of anxiety disorders or neuroses, or even hysterical blindness and other emotionally induced physical problems.

Psychodynamic therapy seeks in part to help patients learn healthy defense mechanisms, which means understanding and accepting the nature of one’s own inner conflicts and withholding self-judgment. The tension between id, ego, and superego not only has the potential to result in unhealthy ego defenses but can lead to anxiety and depression. Psychodynamic therapy tends to be less intensive than classic Freudian or Jungian psychoanalysis, being specifically focused on relieving these tensions.

Bibliography

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