School Climate

Abstract

Components of school climate include leadership, quality of instruction, expectations, communication, and safety. School climate is critical to student success, and a demoralized or unsafe school climate degrades the ability of students to learn. To promote a positive school climate, schools need to place an emphasis on the positive psychological development of students, administrators, and staff. Intrinsic motivation to learn, positive school engagement, positive expectations, and gratitude are particularly important strengths for educators and parents to promote.

Overview

School climate entails the psychosocial environment that students and staff experience as they participate in daily life within the school building. School climate is important because a positive school climate can promote the mental health and academic success of students. On the other hand, a negative school climate can contribute to the development of boredom, apathy, anxiety, lowered attendance, and lower achievement. Some notions of school climate include the extent to which parents feels welcomed at school and trust staff; however, these signs of a healthy parent-school relationship are often studied separately from school climate (Froiland & Davison, 2014). School climate is influenced by a number of adult related factors, such as principal leadership, teacher communication style in the classroom, teacher stress, parental support of student’s intrinsic motivation to learn and do homework at home, pressure from the school board and government to improve test scores, and the percentage of staff turnover each year.

Although adults play a crucial role in creating the school climate, students also have contributed in significant ways. For example, students are more likely to feel like they belong at school when they have satisfying social relationships with peers (Cemalcilar, 2010), even when accounting for the effects of relationships with adults, perceived levels of school violence, and the physical environment. The physical environment (e.g., clean restrooms, aesthetically pleasing buildings, ample space and ergonomically appropriate fixtures and furnishings for students so they don’t feel crowded or uncomfortable (Cemalcilar, 2010) can facilitate a positive school climate, but positive psychological factors are necessary to create a strongly positive school climate. Peers also affect each other’s motivation to learn, whether positively or negatively. Namely, if a student’s good friends love learning, they are more likely to develop a stronger love for learning.

Berg & Cornell (2015) found that when students are authoritative (rather than controlling or passive), students are less aggressive and teachers experience less stress. Likewise, numerous studies have found that when teachers are controlling, students become less intrinsically motivated to learn and exhibit lower levels of classroom behavioral engagement (Froiland, 2014). Lower intrinsic motivation to learn and lower classroom engagement, in turn, lead to lower levels of achievement (Froiland, Mayor & Herlevi, 2015; Froiland & Oros, 2014). Furthermore, lower levels of intrinsic motivation to learn also put students at risk for anxiety and depression (Froiland, 2011), the feeling that they do not belong at school, and dropping out (Froiland, 2014).

Applications

A large prevention program, Caring School Community, has been successful at reducing drug abuse, increasing intrinsic motivation to learn, and increasing the sense of school belonging by employing principles from self-determination theory (e.g., helping teachers to be autonomy supportive). The Caring School Community program also includes activities that build stronger relationships between students in different grade levels (Battistich, Solomon, Kim, Watson & Schaps, 1995). However, programs that focus on parental autonomy support and parent involvement (Froiland, 2014) should also be implemented, because parents play a crucial role in promoting student’s intrinsic motivation to learn, classroom engagement, and expectations for succeeding in school and college (Froiland, Peterson & Davison, 2013). Each of these factors also promotes achievement, which predicts further engagement, attendance, and completion of high school (Froiland & Leavitt, 2013). Furthermore, teachers are also influenced by students, rather than only vice versa (Froiland, 2014). Namely, when students come to school with lower levels of intrinsic motivation, they show signs of disinterest and apathy, which leads many teachers to respond, albeit ineffectively, with more controlling styles of teaching (e.g., making more demands, focusing students on tangible rewards, using harsher language, and showing less affection). Subsequently, students show even lower intrinsic motivation to learn, which leads to a negative spiral (Skinner & Belmont, 1993). Therefore, parents can contribute to school climate indirectly, by promoting a strong love for learning at home (Froiland, 2015).

School climate can feel like a nebulous term, but if school-wide preventive interventions are to be successfully implemented, it is important to measure the effects of those interventions. Furthermore, measures need to be utilized that help identify the strengths and weaknesses of a school, in terms of school climate, so that school psychologists, school administrators, and other members of school-wide teams know what aspects of climate require improvement. One measure that shows promise is the School Mental Health Capacity Instrument, which can be used to examine overall mental health capacity, as well as the following subscales: Prevention and Promotion, Early Recognition and Referral, and Intervention (Feigenburg, Watts & Buckner, 2010).

The Prevention and Promotion subscale seems especially useful, as it examines the extent to which schools support the development of resilience, identify students’ strengths, and intentionally promote psychosocial health. However, there are many other aspects of school climate that one can assess and consider for potential interventions, such as the average level of happiness of teachers, administrators, support staff, and students. If the average level of happiness is not as high as one would like, there are numerous science-based interventions that promote the happiness of both students and adults, such as the gratitude journal, setting intrinsic life goals, mindfulness, practicing novel acts of kindness and sharing positive events (Froiland, 2014).

In order to strongly enhance school climate, it may be necessary to make sure that the intervention program is comprehensive, rather than focusing solely on students. For example, both teachers and students can benefit from employing the gratitude journal, but it is more common for schools to have only students write in them. Teachers could model engagement with the gratitude journal for their students by writing in theirs, whenever students are required to do so. Furthermore, this could help the teachers become happier and less likely to experience burnout and turnover. When implementing such a program, it is important to remember that schools are often pressured by the government to increase achievement scores. Thus, a savvy consultant or interventionist will find ways to help the school integrate Positive Psychology with learning. For example, teachers and students can both record their gratitude journals during literacy instruction, rather than trying to add gratitude journals to an already busy day (Froiland, Peterson & Smith, 2012).

Another important consideration for improving school climate in the United States is Response to Intervention (RtI). RtI involves three tiers. Tier 1 involves universal prevention programs to promote psychological health as well as high quality instruction, whereas tier 2 focuses on students at risk for academic and psychological disorders, and tier 3 focuses on those who are greatly struggling (Froiland, 2011b). School psychologists, consultants, school social workers, and others interested in helping a school enhance school climate, could speak the language of most schools by referring to a school climate intervention within tier 1 of the RtI framework. Within RtI a key emphasis is progress monitoring, which entails repeated measurement of response to science-based interventions. In fact, progress is often graphed so that one can see how the intervention or prevention program has an effect or not over time. Taking on the challenge of enhancing school climate is no easy task, so it would often be helpful to build team momentum by celebrating small victories, which are more likely to be noticed through rigorous ongoing data collection and graphing of results.

Viewpoints

School climate is a rather ubiquitous term and significantly enhancing school climate in a school that is struggling requires a comprehensive approach. As mentioned before, it is not enough to focus solely on teacher-student relationships or even teacher and student well-being. Principals and other school administrators often exert a large influence on school climate. Helping them to improve may require the help of an appropriately trained psychological or organizational consultant. In some cases, helping principals and other school administrators to overcome controlling styles will help increase the engagement and happiness of both teachers and students. In other cases, principals, deans, athletic directors, and assistant principals may need to learn and master servant leadership skills, because teachers are more likely to be inspired by an administrator that demonstrates their passion for helping the school to improve, rather than interacting with staff in a hands-off way.

It is also important to recognize that peers influence each other and often come to school with social goals as well academic ones. Therefore, a wise school climate interventionist will evaluate and intervene (as indicated) in order to help students develop stronger positive relationships and spread prosocial values, such as treating others well, refraining from gossip, and a love for learning.

Another factor that may affect school climate requires thinking outside the walls of the school and outside of the homes of the students. Neighborhoods affect the development of children and youth, as well as the expectations and achievements that take place in schools (Froiland, Powell, Diamond & Son, 2013). For example, neighborhoods with signs of socioeconomic well-being and safety (e.g., many residents with a college education or beyond, a high percentage of occupied homes, and few residents below the poverty line) create conditions in which parents are more likely to encourage each other to get highly engaged with literacy at home and at school (Froiland et al., 2013). Furthermore, neighborhoods (including relatively impoverished neighborhoods) with greater social cohesiveness are more likely to have less crime and more support of healthy student development (Froiland, Powell & Diamond, 2014).

Terms & Concepts

Authoritative: Stemming from the parenting literature, it describes a style of interacting with children that entails high levels of warmth and sensitivity, accompanied by high levels of structure (e.g., clear expectations for children’s behavior; Baumrind, 1991). Teachers can also interact with students in an authoritative way.

Autonomy Supportive Communication: Autonomy supportive communication involves helping children see the beauty in learning, explaining how they could use what they learn to eventually help others, or pointing to the intriguing aspects of learning (Froiland, 2015).

Behavioral Engagement: Paying attention in class, asking thoughtful questions, and otherwise carrying oneself in a way that indicates rich participation.

Intrinsic Motivation to Learn: Finding learning and studying interesting and enjoyable, or otherwise finding learning to be purposeful and related to psychological needs. For example, a high school student may enjoy learning chemistry because she views is as preparation for becoming a scientist that will help people through her research.

Positive Psychology: The science of developing happiness, engagement, and other positive psychological indicators. Positive Psychology is in stark contrast to traditional emphases on diagnosis of disorder and special education placement in schools.

Response to Intervention (RtI): An approach to helping children thrive that involves three levels of support: 1) school-wide prevention services that all students receive, such as all staff and students practicing the gratitude journal; 2) interventions for smaller groups of students designed to help students at risk for greater psychological or academic difficulty; and 3) Intense individualized psychological and academic interventions for students who do not improve enough in the context of high quality prevention and group interventions.

Self-Determination Theory: Deci and Ryan’s well-supported theory that all people have a need for feeling connected to others, expressing their unique identity, and developing competence in various domains of life (Deci, Vallerland, Pelletier & Ryan, 1991). When these needs are met, students and teachers are much more likely to enjoy school, be highly engaged with school, and be happy.

Bibliography

Battistich, V., Solomon, D., Kim, D., Watson, M., & Schaps, E. (1995). Schools as communities, poverty levels of student populations, and students’ attitudes, motives, and performance: A multilevel analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 627–658.

Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11 (1), 56–95.

Berg, J. K., & Cornell, D. (November 2, 2015). Authoritative school climate, aggression toward teachers, and teacher distress in middle school. School Psychology Quarterly. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&id=2015-49426-001#

Cemalcilar, Z. (2010). Schools as socialisation contexts: Understanding the impact of school climate factors on students’ sense of school belonging. Applied Psychology, 59(2), 243–272. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=48116325&site=ehost-live

Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3/4), 325–346. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6370941&site=ehost-live

Feigenburg, L. F., Watts, C. L., & Buckner, J. C. (2010). The school mental health capacity instrument: Development of an assessment and consultation tool. School Mental Health, 2, 142–154.

Froiland, J. M. (2011). Parental autonomy support and student learning goals: A preliminary examination of an intrinsic motivation intervention. Child and Youth Care Forum, 40, 135–149. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=59459974&site=ehost-live

Froiland, J. M. (2011). Response to intervention as a vehicle for powerful mental health interventions in the schools. Contemporary School Psychology, 15, 35–42. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03340961

Froiland, J. M. (2014). Inspired childhood: Parents raising motivated, happy, and successful students from preschool to college. Seattle, WA: Amazon.

Froiland, J. M. (2015). Parents’ weekly descriptions of autonomy supportive communication: Promoting children’s motivation to learn and positive emotions. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24, 117–226. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=pbh&AN=100274730&site=ehost-live

Froiland, J. M., & Davison, M. L. (2014). Parental expectations and school relationships as contributors to adolescents’ positive outcomes. Social Psychology of Education, 17, 1–17.

Froiland, J. M., & Leavitt, R. (2013). Racial inequality: High school dropout rates. In J. Ainsworth (Ed.), Sociology of Education: An A-to-Z Guide (pp. 636–637). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Retrieved January 1, 2016 from http://knowledge.sagepub.com/view/sociology-of-education/n334.xml

Froiland, J. M., Mayor, P., & Herlevi, M. (2015). Motives emanating from personality associated with achievement in a Finnish senior high school: Physical activity, curiosity, and family motives. School Psychology International, 36(2), 207–221. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=101811921&site=ehost-live

Froiland, J. M., & Oros, E. (2014). Intrinsic motivation, perceived competence and classroom engagement as longitudinal predictors of adolescent reading achievement. Educational Psychology, 34, 119–132. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=95334979&site=ehost-live

Froiland, J. M., Peterson, A., & Davison, M. L. (2013). The long-term effects of early parent involvement and parent expectation in the USA. School Psychology International, 34, 33–50. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=85042227&site=ehost-live

Froiland, J. M., Powell, D. R., & Diamond, K. E. (2014). Relations among neighborhood social networks, home literacy environments, and children’s expressive vocabulary in suburban at-risk families. School Psychology International, 35(4), 429–444. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=97080425&site=ehost-live

Froiland, J. M., Powell, D. R., Diamond, K. E., & Son, S.-H. (2013). Neighborhood socioeconomic well-being, home literacy, and early literacy skills of at-risk preschoolers. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 755–769.

Froiland, J. M., Smith, L., & Peterson, A. (2012). How children can be happier and more intrinsically motivated while receiving their compulsory education. In A. Columbus (Ed.), Advances in Psychology Research, Vol. 87 (pp. 85–112). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.

Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J. (1993). Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 571–581.

Suggested Reading

Eyal, O., & Roth, G. (2011). Principals’ leadership and teachers’ motivation: Self-determination theory analysis. Journal of Educational Administration, 49(3), 256–275.

Lazowski, R. A., & Hulleman, C. S. (December 1, 2015). Motivation interventions in education: A Meta-analytic review. Review of Educational Research. Retrieved January 1, 2016 from http://rer.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/11/30/0034654315617832.abstract?rss=1

Mitchell, M. M., Bradshaw, C. P., & Leaf, P. J. (2010). Student and teacher perceptions of school climate: A multilevel exploration of patterns of discrepancy. Journal of School Health, 80(6), 271–279. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=50437044&site=ehost-live

Zullig, K. J., Koopman, T. M., Patton, J. M., & Ubbes, V. A. (2010). School climate: Historical review, instrument development, and school assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 28(2), 139–152.