Sheep-Goat effect
The Sheep-Goat effect is a phenomenon observed in experiments related to extrasensory perception (ESP) and other psi phenomena, where individuals who believe in these abilities, referred to as "sheep," tend to perform better than chance, while skeptics, known as "goats," often score lower than chance. This effect highlights the potential influence of belief on the outcome of psi-related experiments, suggesting that those with a positive disposition towards such phenomena may create an environment conducive to their occurrence. The concept emerged from research conducted by Gertrude Schmeidler, who noted that participants' mental states and attitudes towards the experimenter could affect their performance.
Theoretical interpretations of the Sheep-Goat effect vary; some researchers, like Mario Varvoglis, argue that belief enhances the likelihood of a successful psi experience, while others suggest that the disbelief of nonbelievers leads to a conscious or subconscious motivation to disprove the phenomena. This can result in nonbelievers underperforming even compared to random chance. Moreover, the design and execution of the experiments themselves can introduce biases, influencing results in ways that may not be immediately apparent. Overall, the Sheep-Goat effect underscores the complex interplay between belief systems and experimental outcomes in the study of psi phenomena.
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Sheep-Goat effect
The sheep-goat effect is an effect sometimes observed in experiments testing extrasensory perception (ESP) and other psi phenomena in which believers, or "sheep," score higher than random chance while nonbelievers, or "goats," score lower than random chance. This effect is not always observed but is well-known enough that parapsychological experiments often mention whether sheep or goat effects were present. There are different possible interpretations for the sheep-goat effect.
Overview
Extrasensory perception (ESP), a term coined by early parapsychologist Joseph Banks Rhine (1895–1980) in the 1930s, is the perception of verifiable information through means other than the senses known to current science. The term "psi phenomena" encompasses a number of other unusual forms of communication or energy transmission, including ESP, psychokinesis, telepathy, precognition and retrocognition, and clairvoyance. Rhine founded the study of parapsychology in the late 1920s, running a research laboratory at Duke University for more than four decades and publishing the findings of his numerous studies.
At City University of New York, psychology professor Gertrude Schmeidler (1912–2009) conducted psi experiments in 1942 in which she first observed and described the sheep-goat effect. Schmeidler also noted that the subjects’ favorability to the experimenter or the experimental methods and their mental state appeared to be factors in their performance as well. Parapsychologist Mario Varvoglis has claimed that the sheep-goat effect is evidence that belief in psi, which he equates to interest in interconnectedness, increases the odds of psi phenomena occurring (called a "psi hit") and that disbelief similarly dampens the likelihood of its occurrence (called a "psi miss"). Other researchers have argued that the "sheep" aspect is less important than the "goat"—that the more important observation is that subjects who do not believe in psi phenomena are unable to produce such effects when asked to do so in experimental conditions and therefore underperform relative not only to believers but to chance as well. For example, Lance Storm, Suitbert Ertel, and Adam Rock have theorized that nonbelievers feel more strongly coerced when asked to prove something in which they do not believe and thus become motivated to disprove the existence of the psi phenomenon and do not comply.
Furthermore, even tests designed to leave no room for interpretation often have unintended subjectivity; rigorous test design is a science unto itself. Just as in other kinds of scientific research, depending on the nature of the experiment, subjects can be unconsciously primed or answers can be interpreted to fit the experimenter’s expectations, often without the experimenter being conscious of their bias.
Bibliography
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Cardeña, Etzel, John Palmer, and David Marcusson-Clavertz, eds. Parapsychology: A Handbook for the 21st Century. Jefferson: McFarland, 2015. Print.
DuBois, Dr. Kali. "Understanding the Sheep-Goat Effect in Parapsychology." Medium, 20 June 2023, kalidubois.medium.com/understanding-the-sheep-goat-effect-in-parapsychology-6a2c113df1f7. Accessed 15 Nov. 2024.
Hong Xiong, Jesse. The Outline of Parapsychology. Rev. ed. Lanham: UP of America, 2010. Print.
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May, Edwin C., and Sonali Bhatt Marwaha, eds. Extrasensory Perception: Support, Skepticism, and Science. Santa Barbara: Praeger, 2015. Print.
Schmeidler, Gertrude Raffel, and R. A. McConnell. ESP and Personality Patterns. New Haven: Yale UP, 1964. Print.