Symbolic racism
Symbolic racism, also known as modern racism, emerged in the early 1980s as a response to the evolving attitudes of White Americans toward Black individuals. Unlike earlier forms of overt racism characterized by explicit prejudice and negative stereotypes, symbolic racism reflects a more subtle and indirect expression of bias. Supporters of this view acknowledge the importance of equal opportunities and publicly denounce racism. However, they often believe that discrimination is no longer a significant issue and that Black individuals are unjustly benefiting from policies like affirmative action at the expense of White people.
This form of racism is often identified through specific “code words” such as "welfare," "crime," and "affirmative action," which evoke underlying anti-Black sentiments. Researchers, including John McConahay, developed scales like the Modern Racism Scale to measure these attitudes, revealing a discrepancy between individuals’ stated beliefs in equality and their underlying biases. The concept highlights a complex interplay of feelings and societal norms, suggesting that while overt racism may have lessened, prejudiced attitudes still persist, often masked by socially acceptable justifications. As societal dynamics evolve, scholars recognize that the nature of racism and its manifestations will continue to change, necessitating ongoing adaptations in the study and measurement of racial attitudes.
Symbolic racism
The concept of modern, or symbolic, racism was created by social psychologists in the early 1980s in response to the fact that the form of White Americans’ racism toward Black people had changed since the early years of research into prejudice.
When scientists first began studying racism in the 1930s, most White Americans held prejudiced beliefs about Black people, and most were quite candid in expressing their beliefs. Researchers would typically give people a checklist of attributes and stereotypes and ask people to indicate the traits they felt were characteristics of Black people. The majority of White respondents chose much more negative traits for Black people than they did for White people. White respondents would also commonly express rejection of integration in schools, neighborhoods, and the workplace.
By the 1970s, however, researchers found that these old methods of measuring racism no longer worked very well. Overt bigotry was no longer considered socially acceptable, and White Americans were no longer willing to indicate such obviously biased views. They ascribed fewer negative stereotypes to African Americans and supported integration. However, racism clearly had not disappeared. White people were still reluctant to vote for Black political candidates, and they continued to oppose such policies as affirmative action. Researchers such as John McConahay, David Sears, Lawrence Bobo, John Dovidio, and Samuel Gaertner called this new form “symbolic,” or “modern” racism.
Symbolic racists assert that racism is bad, and they reject most old-fashioned stereotypes. They also believe in equal opportunities. However, they believe that discrimination no longer exists and that Black people are demanding and receive unfair benefits at the expense of White people.
People with highly symbolic racisist beliefs will often respond to certain “code words” that have come to symbolize Black people in the United States (hence the term “symbolic” racism). Examples of these code words are “affirmative action,” “crime,” and "welfare.” According to the researchers, these individuals still harbor anti-Black feelings, although they are often not consciously aware of them. These feelings conflict with their beliefs in equality, resulting in ambivalence and conflict. Furthermore, because prejudice is not generally socially acceptable, these people must cloak their feelings in a manner that can be explained by factors other than prejudice, such as fear of crime.
To measure symbolic racism, McConahay created the Modern Racism Scale. The items on this scale attempt to determine the degree to which respondents believe African Americans have pushed too hard and received more than they deserve. Some have criticized that the scale really measures some other factor, such as political conservatism, rather than racism. However, scores on the Modern Racism Scale have been found to correlate with attitudes toward busing, feelings toward African Americans, voting decisions, and race-based hiring decisions.
Those who study symbolic racism have acknowledged that the form racism takes in the United States is likely to continue to change over time, and the methods of measuring racism will have to change accordingly. It is unlikely, however, that bigotry and racism will disappear altogether.
Bibliography
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