Abstract Thinking Skills

Abstract thinking skills develop over the course of a child's early developmental years and throughout adolescence. Development of these cognitive skills is largely dependent on stage of growth and on various biological processes including myelination, which increases the speed at which an individual can process information. Researchers have developed the information processing model to describe the actions of the brain when human beings think. This model helps us explain how human beings achieve higher cognitive abilities. Abstract thinking skills are developed in various ways, in and out of the classroom.

Keywords Abstraction; Adolescence; Developmental Psychology; Information Processing Model; Meta-cognition; Myelination; Strategies; Symbols

Overview

The skills an individual needs to excel in today's workplace have changed dramatically since the advent of our modern education system. Our economy has become increasingly global, more technologically advanced, and the competencies individuals display in order to work in the majority of fields today reflects these changes. Today's economy largely requires a college education, and a skill set that includes being able to think abstractly.

Historically, how children learn and what they are able to do has been shaped largely by the work of two noteworthy researchers: Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Both theories continue to be applied to educational methods today. Piaget and Vygotsky were concerned with the development of higher cognition and social behavior in human beings. Piaget described intelligence as the process by which an individual could adapt to its environment using two processes - assimilation and accommodation, and identified four stages of cognitive development that occurred from infancy throughout adulthood. In each stage, certain behaviors and capabilities were noted, from object permanence in infancy to the ability to use symbols to represent abstract concepts in and throughout adulthood (Huitt & Hummel, 2003).

Vygotsky believed that interactions with others shape human beings in their behavior and ability to think and learn. He believed that social interaction with others was critical to learning, and that all higher quality learning actually occurs as a result of these relationships. Furthermore, Vygotsky's theory also purported that there are certain cognitions that can only occur in a specific time frame of an individual's life - the zone of proximal development - and what and how much an individual learns depends upon interactions with those around them. His theory argued that the guidance of an adult or peers could teach an individual much more than they could learn on their own (Wertsch, 1985).

The theories of Piaget and Vygotsky were influential to other educational researchers and psychologists, including John Dewey and Jerome Bruner. However, we are still learning about the most successful ways to develop and encourage abstract thinking skills in an educational setting. While these early theories very much shaped how we view the development of thinking and learning today, more recent research has shed light on the development of abstract thinking. While Piaget was focused largely on stages of development, and saw these stages as separate and related to a child's age, current research has focused largely on the information processing theory, which akins the human brain to a computer that manages information by storing knowledge, and getting to that knowledge by utilizing a range of strategies. Thinking occurs as human beings store and retrieve information. The information processing model sees development of thought as a more fluid model, rather than progress occurring in stages of development as Piaget described it.

Abstract thinking is the ability to take concrete experiences and knowledge and apply them to other ideas and problems. It is an essential skill in problem solving, and experts agree that all substantial and noteworthy learning involves abstract thinking (Poole, Miller, & Church, 2005). Developing abstract thinking skills is imperative for children, and development takes place throughout their education, well into adulthood.

Educational psychology is closely linked to developmental and cognitive psychology. Research from all of these fields helps us explain how abstract thinking skills develop in individuals, and how these skills can be encouraged in a school setting. One of the most critical areas in which abstract thinking skills can and should be developed is in the classroom. Teachers and schools can use various strategies and instructional methods to encourage students to think abstractly.

The development of abstract thinking skills has become an important part of instructional techniques in schools largely due to a shift in the requirements necessary to compete in the current and future global economy. As technology advances, it becomes imperative that individuals have the skills to solve problems and that are becoming increasingly complex.

Stages of Human Development & Cognitive Function

Developing abstract thinking skills goes hand in hand with human development, the conditions in which individuals develop, and by whom they are surrounded. The development of abstract thinking skills starts when children are very young, and the adults who surround children can help them develop these proficiencies as they grow older; especially once a child enters formal schooling (Poole, Miller, & Church, 2005). There are four stages of development that are recognized as critical periods in which cognitive function develops:

• Prenatal

• Infancy

• Middle Childhood

• Adolescence

During prenatal development, the first major stage, growth is impacted by the quality of prenatal care. A mother's actions such as drinking excessive alcohol or smoking, or poor nutrition can have a negative impact on the development of the fetus, and can have adverse effects on cognitive development (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). Additionally, external factors like a mother’s exposure to a stressful environment during pregnancy can negatively impact a child’s development (Henrichs, et al., 2011).

During infancy, the brain grows larger, and a variety of abilities including language and social skills develop. Between two and five years of age, the years where most children enter school, brain growth is continuing; simultaneously, myelination of the cells in the nervous system is occurring. As a result of increased myelination, children are able to process information at faster speeds as they grow older (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). Around the age of two, a significant transformation occurs in that children are able to abstract concepts from their environment to other objects or experiences (Poole, Miller, & Church, 2005). Language, social, and thinking skills continue to increase, and the development during these years can be largely impacted by the adults present in the child's life (Pressley & McCormick, 2007).

Most children in the United States enter elementary school around the age of five or six, and finish elementary school between the ages of twelve and thirteen. These developmental years are often referred to as "middle childhood" years. During this period children continue to develop language skills, and begin to gain knowledge and develop problem solving techniques that will have a large impact in their success in school, and thus on their ability to think abstractly. This is also the stage of development in which children cultivate a sense of whether they are successful or not in various areas of their schooling (Pressley & McCormick, 2007).

Adolescence usually begins at about twelve years of age, and continues into the late teens. The human brain reaches the adult weight and size by the age of sixteen, on average, but the brain continues to change and mature in various ways. Strategies for various cognitive skills, such as memory, continue to progress, as well as social interaction skills (Pressley & McCormick, 2007).

Classroom instructors and professionals in the field of education should be aware of these developmental periods. What students are cognitively capable of depends partly upon their developmental status. For a five-year old, abstract thinking may involve being able to use a certain toy as a symbol for another object in dramatic play, while a senior in high school may apply learned math skills to solve a problem in physics.

Applications

Early models of thought and cognition primarily described the development of thinking skills in stages. Piaget's model focused on four stages that were descriptive of various ages throughout early childhood and adolescence. Each stage listed milestones, and the final stage, formal operations, culminated in an ability to use symbols logically and relate these symbols to abstract concepts. Piaget suggested that in each stage, a child should be challenged with tasks that would scaffold them to the next stage - consistently stimulating their minds to make the leap to the next level of complexity (Huitt & Hummel, 2003).

Information Processing Theory

Recent research has brought to light another model of how thinking skills develop - the information processing theory. The information processing theory likens the human mind to a computer - that human beings have short-and long-term memory "storage." When items in this storage are activated and applied to the present situation or problem, thinking occurs. From this perspective, the development of thinking skills, including the ability to think abstractly, is advanced through the progress of what an individual knows and what they can remember (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). Short- and long-term memory and knowledge develop as children grow. Between the ages of three and sixteen, children increase their abilities in storing items in their short-term memory (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). Increasing the memory capacity and knowledge that a child retains contributes significantly to how adept they will become at solving problems effectively, a hallmark of abstract thinking (Bjorklund, 2000).

Developing Abstract Skills

The importance of mastering basic operations during the early years of elementary school is not to be taken lightly. Activities such as counting and simple mathematical skills, knowing the alphabet, and learning how to read, are imperative to building abstract thinking skills. Parents and teachers can also help develop abstract thinking by helping children remember events and facts - repetition can be a powerful tool.

Teachers who work with children in infancy or early elementary years are working with individuals with rapidly developing brains. Teaching throughout the daily established routines is important at this age. Children are rapidly compiling knowledge about the world surrounding them, and during the early years of schooling should be encouraged to explore various textures, colors, and objects, as well as their functions. By the time a child reaches the age of one, he or she will begin to understand how everyday objects have use, and begin to build a knowledge base of uses and characteristics that certain objects have (Poole, Miller, & Church, 2005).

By ages three and four, children are able to begin to abstract numbers - they understand that anything can be counted, and apply counting skills. Children at this age also become adept at using one object as a symbol for another; for example, during play, children may use a stick or a piece of fruit as a "phone" to "call" a friend in another "location." All of these types of actions are important to developing abstract thinking skills. Being able to identify and use symbols especially is an important skill in abstraction.

Building Knowledge

Additionally, experience is very important in building a knowledge base. For example, a child may learn numbers at a young age; when they begin applying these numbers to other things in their lives, they are beginning to think abstractly. Three-and four-year olds are old enough to describe their experiences, and connect these incidents to the rest of the world around them. When teaching younger children, it is important to engage them in a variety of activities in which they can apply and practice skills they have learned in school (Rigolon & Alloway, 2011). The breadth of experience helps students apply their knowledge and learned skills to a range of topics. Introducing children to a variety of encounters and fields of study through field trips, stories, and other activities helps them build their knowledge base and apply their knowledge, which will cultivate their ability to think abstractly (Poole, Miller, & Church, 2005).

Using Strategies

Effectively learning and using strategies in school can help increase the thinking skills of youth and adolescents throughout their education. In addition to building knowledge and experiences, strategy use is another important facet of the information processing model. Strategies are complex activities used to accomplish a certain goal. Strategizing is often used interchangeably with problem solving, but the true process of solving problems is more complex than being able to answer a math problem or an analogy. In order to achieve higher cognitive skills such as abstract reasoning, an individual must be able to identify the problem, solve it, and then reflect upon how one solved it or did not solve it. The process requires a great deal of self-awareness and metacognition, or being aware of one's own thought processes. In order to use strategies effectively, a student must first have a base of knowledge on how to solve a problem or address the issue (Pressley & McCormick, 2007).

Teaching strategies to individuals in the classroom is not an easy task, and many adults do not use effective strategies themselves, especially because strategies get more complex as students advance in school (Bjorklund, 2000). Teaching strategies is more complex than memorization or teaching a single skill. Strategies help students apply the knowledge they have learned, or take the knowledge from the problem they have solved and transfer it to another situation. While some students learn and apply strategies on their own, it is important that teachers teach their students various strategies and how to apply them.

Learning to use strategies is often difficult for students. However, teachers can increase the rate at which students will actually apply strategies to the problems they are trying to solve. Research has shown that students will use strategies when they understand how they will help them achieve their goals, and when a student is aware of their own thinking patterns when using strategies (Askell-Williams, Lawson & Skrzypiec, 2012). Increasing metacognition (the awareness of the thought process) in students, and increasing their aptitude in this skill also has been shown to help students use strategies (Pressley & McCormick, 2007).

Teaching professionals can help students learn how to think abstractly by introducing new knowledge, teaching skills to solve various problems, and encouraging students to use these strategies in other areas. Developing abstract thinking skills is largely based around being able to solve problems and apply these solutions to other problems. The road to being able to think abstractly comes through solving problems throughout one's life, starting in infancy. These skills can be applied to all disciplines; furthermore, they are important skills that will help individuals meet further and ever more complex challenges.

The information processing theory helps explain how human beings think, and how we develop higher cognitive aptitude. Problem solving can run the gamut from figuring out how to retrieve a fallen toy to using statistical analysis to play poker to applying themes from a certain literary period from one novel to the next. By understanding the theory behind cognitive development, teachers can help develop these skills through various age-appropriate classroom methods.

Applying Abstract Thinking Skills in the Classroom

Mathematics

Teaching mathematics requires a great deal of abstract thinking. Particularly, learning and understanding algebra represents a shift towards advanced reasoning skills. However, many students have trouble making this leap. Research supports that beginning to hone abstract thinking skills early in a child's academic career, specifically when learning arithmetic and simple functions, which build the foundation for algebra, can help students make this shift. The two critical elements that help build these skills are helping kids understand explicitly what they understand implicitly, and supporting the professional development of teachers who teach mathematics (Carpenter, Levi, & Farnsworth, 2000).

Researchers have found that students understand many fundamental characteristics of numbers and how to manipulate them. However, students are often not told explicitly the rules in which these characteristics apply, and thus may become unsure how to apply these properties to other problems, or even oversimplify the parameters that guide their knowledge of a certain skill. When this type of knowledge is unequivocally explained rather than simply inferred or left to the student to deduce, understanding and being able to perform algebraic functions become much more logical for students, and will assist them in applying these higher order thinking skills to more complex problems (Carpenter, Levi, & Farnsworth, 2000).

The quality of teaching is imperative to good learning. From what researchers know about teaching algebra, we understand that when math skills build on each other, and students clearly understand the operations they are performing and why they are performing them, the leap to algebra is more straightforward. Classroom instruction to build algebraic skills can begin as early as first or second grade, with teachers discussing with students the rules and theories behind numbers and their operations. However, in order for these discussions to occur, and for children to gain this knowledge, schools need to support development for teachers in how to properly teach what they know, and transfer the knowledge effectively to their students at various levels of their development (Carpenter, Levi, & Farnsworth, 2000).

Reading

Learning to read can be a difficult task. Reading involves abstraction from the very first steps; from learning to read for content, to reading for various themes or abstract ideas. Many colleges and universities now require incoming freshman to take a course in knowing how to read and write effectively. These classes often work to increase abstract thinking skills through various methodologies.

Teaching abstract thinking skills through reading involves a number of applications. First, students need to be taught to read "actively." When an individual employs active reading, he or she may be looking to accomplish a number of things. First, reading for factual content - the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the piece. However, the individual is also looking for certain concepts or generalizations, main ideas, or trying to apply these concepts, generalizations, and main ideas to other works (Ediger, 2003). Teachers can help guide students in various ways, such as using specific questioning techniques, helping students compare and contrast the information they are reading to other works, and encouraging students to be aware of their thought processes while reading and deciphering new information.

Conclusion

Abstract thinking skills elevate an individual's ability to solve problems through a variety of methods - mental imagery, using and interpreting symbols, and creating and executing a plan (Perry, 2004). These thinking skills are cultivated throughout a child's life, and parents and teachers can help encourage abstract thinking skills through various methods that are age level appropriate. Abstract thinking does not develop automatically. While some students begin the steps to abstract thinking - using and applying strategies or reading for main ideas and themes - on their own, the guidance of a teacher or influence of peers is critical.

Developing these cognitive skills is a long process built on previously learned skills. Supporting and encouraging children to move to the next level is critical to their success. Repetition is extremely important in developing abstract thinking skills. When children are young, they must establish a set of knowledge that will allow them to further their cognitive development. Learning to count sets children up to learn how to add, then multiply, and then solve algebraic problems. Furthermore, during the child's developmental years, children learn to think responsively to the environment around them. Many researchers believe that exposure to a variety of environments, opinions, and experiences will help children and adolescents develop abstract thinking skills (Perry, 2004).

Teachers can help students develop skills through methods such as using manipulatives in teaching so that students can build representations and models of the concepts they are being taught. When discussing various topics, classifying things into groups according to similar or different characteristics will assist students in categorizing and arranging their thoughts and knowledge. Finally, questioning is at the root of abstract thinking. Students should be taught to question: Why or why not? What if? So what? Teachers should help guide students seeking answers to these questions (Bjorklund, 2000).

Cultivating abstract thinking skills is important for success in the majority of fields, including the sciences and the technology sector, which have become critical factors in our new brain-based economy. These skills can be taught and nurtured through classroom instructional techniques, and at home. However, it requires a high level of commitment and expertise from teachers, administrators, and families.

Terms & Concepts

Abstraction: Abstraction is the ability to apply knowledge or experience about one topic or task to another.

Adolescence: Adolescence is a stage of development that occurs prior to adulthood.

Developmental Psychology: Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that researches psychological conditions in human beings at different ages. The branch is closely related to a variety of fields, including education, as well as social and cognitive psychology.

Information Processing Model: The information processing model was describes a theory of how human beings think - by storing and retrieving information.

Metacognition: Metacognition means to think about one's thoughts, or to be aware of one's thinking process. The practice has been shown to increase abstract thinking skills.

Myelination: Myelination is biological process that occurs in our cells as we learn to process information more quickly.

Strategies: Strategies are techniques that help students learn and apply knowledge to various situations or tasks in order to solve problems.

Symbols: Symbols are an object that represents another object. Being able to recognize and apply symbols is indicative of abstract thought.

Bibliography

Askell-Williams, H., Lawson, M., & Skrzypiec, G. (2012). Scaffolding cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction in regular class lessons. Instructional Science, 40, 413-443. Retrieved on December 7, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=71672919&site=ehost-live

Bjorklund, D.F. (2000). Children's thinking: Developmental function and individual differences (3rd Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Carpenter, T., Levi, L., & Farnsworth, V. (2000). Building a foundation for learning algebra in the elementary grades. Washington, D.C: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 499015). Retrieved November 26, 2007 from Educational Resources Information Center, Web Site: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/16/c8/7e.pdf.

Clements, D. & Sarama, J. (2004). Think big! How to use math to build your child's abstract- thinking skills. Scholastic Parent &Child, 11 , 36-46. Retrieved November 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12647619&site=ehost-live

Ediger, M. (2003). Patterns of thinking in reading. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 478765). Retrieved November 26, 2007 from Educational Resources Information Center, Web Site: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/3d/ba.pdf

Henrichs, J., Schenk, J.J., Kok, R., Ftitache, B., Schmidt, H.G., Hofman, A., & Tiemeier, H. (2011). Parental family stress during pregnancy and cognitive functioning in early childhood: The Generation R study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 26, 332-343. Retrieved on December 7, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=60563457&site=ehost-live

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (2003). Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved November 26, 2007 from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html.

Perry, B.D. (2004). What's going on in there? What happens in the brain as abstract thinking develops. Scholastic Parent & Child, 11 , 36-46.

Poole, C., Miller, S.A., & Church, E.B. (2005). Early Childhood Today,19 , 45-47. Retrieved November 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15635870&site=ehost-live

Pressley, M., & McCormick, C.B. (2007). Child and adolescent development for educators. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Rigolon, A., & Alloway, M. (2011). Children and their development as the starting point: A new way to think about the design of elementary schools. Educational & Child Psychology, 28, 64-76. Retrieved on December 7, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=59574396&site=ehost-live

Wertsch, J.V. (1985). Cultural, Communication, and Cognition: Vygotskian Perspectives. Cambridge University Press.

Suggested Reading

Alexnder, J.M. , Schwanenflugel, P.J.& Carr, M.(1995). Development of metacognition in gifted children: Directions for future research. Developmental Review, 15, 1-37.

Dewey, J. (1997). How we think. New York: Dover Publications.

Piaget, J. (1972). The psychology of the child. New York: Basic Books.

Renner, J., Stafford, D., Lawson, A., McKinnon, J., Friot, E., & Kellogg, D. (1976).

Renner, J., Stafford, D., Lawson, A., McKinnon, J., Friot, E., & Kellogg, D. (1976). Research, teaching, and learning with the Piaget model. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.

Stillings, N, Feinstein, M., Garfield, J., Rissland, E., Rosenbaum, D., Weisler, S., & Baker-Ward, L. (1987). Cognitive science: An introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L., & Vygotsky, S. (1980). Mind in society : The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.