Adoptionism
Adoptionism is an early Christian theological belief that posits Jesus Christ was born fully human and later adopted by God as His son. This perspective emerged in the second century as early Christians sought to understand the dual nature of Jesus—both human and divine. Adoptionists, such as the Ebionites, held that Jesus was a common man who earned divine status through his exemplary life, particularly at the moment of his baptism. This belief stood in contrast to mainstream Christian doctrine, which asserts that Jesus was both divine and human from birth, a view formalized in the fourth century during the Council of Nicaea. Adoptionism faced strong opposition and was labeled heretical, leading to its rejection by early Church leaders and subsequent excommunication of its proponents. Despite this condemnation, the idea resurfaced in the eighth century in Spain, with variations that maintained Jesus' divine nature while suggesting he temporarily set it aside during his earthly life. While most modern Christian denominations uphold traditional beliefs about Jesus' divine origins, some groups continue to explore interpretations that align more closely with Adoptionist views, often questioning the virgin birth narrative.
Adoptionism
Adoptionism was a controversial early Christian belief that Jesus Christ was born fully human and was later adopted by God as his son. In the adoptionist view, Jesus was not born as the divine son of God but was a human who was granted his divine status after passing God’s tests and proving his devotion. The idea first developed in the second century and likely grew out of the early Christian Church’s attempt to define the nature of God and the dual aspects of Jesus as both human and divine. Adoptionism was never accepted by the Church as doctrine and was quickly labeled heretical. However, the concept survived for centuries and was revived several times, only to be condemned each time by Church leaders.
Background
Christianity originated in the early years of the first century near Jerusalem in the Middle Eastern province of Judea. The religion grew from the teachings of Jesus Christ, a Jewish religious leader who preached throughout the region. According to standard Christian theology, Jesus was the Son of God, one of three divine aspects of a single supreme being. Jesus was sent to Earth as the promised Messiah who would restore God’s kingdom and save humankind from sin. He accomplished these tasks through his death by crucifixion and subsequent resurrection three days later. Christians believe Jesus remained on Earth for a time after his resurrection, commanding his followers to spread his teachings until he was physically taken up into heaven by God.
This view of Jesus is accepted by most modern Christians, but in the years after Jesus’ death, followers of the new religion did not adhere to a common theology. In fact, early Christians thought of themselves as Jews, and Christianity was seen as an offshoot of Judaism. Traditional Jewish teachings held that there was a single, all-powerful God, so the new religion’s belief that Jesus was a human manifestation of this God seemed potentially contradictory. Early Christians often debated the nature of God as a single being or as a being with three divine aspects—a concept known as the Trinity. Jesus’ role as God’s son and the nature of his humanity also led to disagreements. As a result, different groups developed their own core beliefs and splintered off from mainstream Christianity. The debate was ultimately settled in the fourth century, when Church leaders met in a series of councils to determine a standard Christian doctrine.
Overview
In the midst of the theological debate over the nature of Jesus, the concept of adoptionism began to develop in the second century CE. Several different versions of adoptionism were proposed, but all adhered to the common idea that Jesus was born human and became divine through the intercession of God. One of the earliest groups to accept the idea was a Jewish-Christian sect known as the Ebionites. The Ebionites viewed Jesus as the Messiah but also believed he was fully human and thought him a “plain and common man.” They denied his divine origins and rejected the idea he was born through a miraculous virgin birth. The Ebionites believed that Jesus eventually earned God’s favor and was elevated to divine status at the time of his baptism. According to the Bible, this symbolic event occurred when Jesus was an adult and was performed by a holy man called John the Baptist.
In the late second century, a writer named Theodotus from the Greek colony of Byzantium became one of the leading proponents of adoptionism. Unlike the Ebionites, Theodotus held that Jesus was born to a virgin mother but was not divine upon his birth. At the time of his baptism, Jesus was adopted by God as his son; however, it was not until after his resurrection that Jesus became fully divine. This view was swiftly rejected as heresy by early Christian leaders, and Theodotus himself was excommunicated by Pope Victor I.
Another proponent of adoptionism, Paul of Samosata, a Syrian bishop in the third century, taught that Jesus was born human and lived such a virtuous life that he was united with God and made divine. Paul was stripped of his position by the Church because of his beliefs. Other theologians of the time held similar views to Paul, seeing Jesus as a good man who was made divine after proving his devotion to God. Most believed this transformation occurred at the time of Jesus’ baptism, but some saw it happening after his resurrection or upon his ascension to heaven.
In 325, Christian bishops gathered in the city of Nicaea in what is today the Republic of Türkiye to establish uniform standards for church doctrine. The council, the first of several held during the fourth century, definitively stated that God was a single being made up of three divine aspects—the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Jesus was the divine Son of God, born to the Virgin Mary through the power of the Holy Spirit. This doctrine completely rejected the idea of adoptionism by declaring Jesus to be the divine incarnation of God in human form.
Despite the idea’s condemnation by the Church, adoptionism was revived in the eighth century by Christians living in Muslim-held Spain. The revival was believed to have been started by Elipandus, the archbishop of Toledo in central Spain. This form of adoptionism differed from earlier versions in that Jesus’ divine origins were never questioned. Instead, his divine and human aspects were seen as separate. In this view, Jesus gave up his divine nature to become human; only later did he regain his divinity through his adoption by God. Elipandus’ teachings were declared heresy, and the adoptionist doctrine was condemned by Pope Leo III at a church council in 794.
Some philosophers during the medieval period argued that the divine aspects of Jesus remained divine, but during the time he lived on Earth as a human, he was the adoptive son of God. Some modern Christian sects follow a similar doctrine by holding that Jesus was fully human during his time on Earth. While these groups accept his divine nature, many question the claim that he was born to a virgin mother.
Bibliography
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