Critical theory
Critical theory is a philosophical and social framework primarily associated with the Frankfurt School, which emerged in Germany in the early 20th century. Building upon Karl Marx's ideas, critical theory investigates how societal structures and ideologies may oppress individuals and hinder their potential for freedom and creativity. Influential figures within this tradition, such as Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse, expanded the analysis of society to include various disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and aesthetics. The theory posits that understanding social reality requires examining both historical contexts and personal experiences, emphasizing that an understanding of "what is" should guide discussions about "what ought to be." Although critical theory has its roots in Marxism, it has also been applied to various critiques, such as feminist and postcolonial perspectives, addressing issues like gender and power dynamics. In contemporary applications, critical theorists analyze literature, art, and culture to illuminate social conditions and inspire transformative action. Overall, critical theory serves as a tool for understanding and potentially reshaping the world through a critical lens.
Subject Terms
Critical theory
Critical theory refers to a school of German philosophy and social theory. In particular, it refers to those theories developed by the Frankfurt School and built upon the ideas of Karl Marx. Critical theory generally examines how individuals and society may be freed from the situations that bind them. Early influential critical theorists include Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Walter Benjamin, Friedrich Pollock, Leo Lowenthal, and Eric Fromm.
History
Marx and the Frankfurt School. Marx believed that the capitalist system subjugated and sacrificed the working class for the profits of the capitalists—those who owned the businesses and benefited from the laborers' efforts. He believed this imbalance changed humans, who are, by nature, creative and free beings with tremendous potential to change society. Marx fused philosophy and economics in his writing, explaining that capitalism distances society from its capacity to determine its own destiny.
Critical theory was developed at the Institute for Social Research, also called the Frankfurt School. It was founded in 1923 in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, but the Nazis closed it down in 1933. The school moved to the United States and reopened at Columbia University in New York in 1935. It continued to publish in German for some time. The language barrier prevented the institute and its members from meaningfully interacting with American educators and students. After World War II, the school reopened in Germany in 1951.
Areas of Study
The purpose of the institute was to examine society using the Marxist tradition and to study the labor movement. Under its second director, Max Horkheimer, it expanded its focus to analysis and interdisciplinary studies, which included aesthetics, economics, law, philosophy, politics, psychology, and sociology. Other members influenced the direction of the institute as well. For example, Fromm introduced elements of psychoanalysis with a focus on examining the ideas of psychologist Sigmund Freud in concert with Marx's theories. Freud's instinct theory (life drives and death drives) and his ideas about id, ego, and superego (the three components of human personality) proved to be highly influential because the institute's members sought to understand humankind's motivations in modern capitalist societies. During its years in the United States, however, the institute downplayed the focus on Marxism and its predictions that a working-class revolution was at hand.
Critical Theory
As Horkheimer explained critical theory, one's understanding of an object is determined by both one's understanding of the historical qualities of the object and one's personal history.
Because critical theory's roots lie in the pursuit of a moral society, situations and suggestions for solutions should go hand in hand. Put another way, every is should be paired with an ought. What is should be followed by what ought to be.
During the years the Institute for Social Research spent in the United States, the world was at war. The writings of Horkheimer and his colleagues were decidedly pessimistic, as were most people's worldviews at the time. The members of the institute refused to comment on modern politics or current events, ignoring the ought in reaction to the is. Thus, critical theory seemed highly abstract, and many people criticized it.
Other Applications
In addition to using a Marxist perspective to examine society, critical theory may be examined from other angles. For example, a feminist critique might explore ideas of gender or patriarchy (male dominance) within the Marxist arena: How does division of labor based on gender affect the way a person views the world? In a patriarchal system, how do people perceive the world?
The concepts of critical theory have been applied in fields as diverse as social science and art. In critical social science, practitioners seek to understand the lives and experiences of real people. For individuals, understanding how they are oppressed helps them change these oppressive influences by taking action. Both the theory and the action are important components of critical social science.
Using critical theory, an individual may analyze art, culture, and literature from various perspectives. The many schools of literary criticism include feminist, Marxist, postcolonial, psychoanalytic, and gender studies. For example, a critic might examine the motivations of a character in a work based on Marxist theories by considering the character's social class or economic status or by studying the point of view of the work. The critic then questions whether the work represents the views of the working class or the views of the captains of industry. In examining literary or cultural works, critical theorists ultimately intend to shed light on social conditions and create an awareness that will, in turn, encourage and enable change.
Bibliography
Celikates, Robin, and Jeffrey Flynn. "Critical Theory (Frankfurt School)." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 12 Dec. 2023, plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/. Accessed 23 Aug. 2024.
Chambers, Simone. "The Politics of Critical Theory." The Cambridge Companion to Critical Theory, edited by Fred Rush, Cambridge UP, 2004, pp. 219–223.
Corradetti, Claudio. "The Frankfurt School and Critical Theory." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, www.iep.utm.edu/frankfur/. Accessed 23 Aug. 2024.
Joll, Nicholas. "Metaphilosophy." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 8 Jan. 2017, www.iep.utm.edu/con-meta/#SH4b. Accessed 23 Aug. 2024.
Mills, Jon, and Daniel Burston, editors. Critical Theory and Psychoanalysis: From the Frankfurt School to Contemporary Critique. Routledge, 2023.
Nickerson, Charlotte. "Understanding Critical Theory." SimplyPsychology, 29 Sept. 2023, www.simplypsychology.org/critical-theory.html. Accessed 23 Aug. 2024.
Prychitko, David L. "Marxism." The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, Library of Economics and Liberty, www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Marxism.html. Accessed 23 Aug. 2024.
Thompson, Peter. "The Frankfurt School, Part 1: Why Did Anders Breivik Fear Them?" The Guardian, 25 Mar. 2013, www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/mar/25/anders-breivik-frankfurt-school. Accessed 24 Aug. 2024.