Cultural Pluralism (Education)

Abstract

Cultural pluralism refers to societies that allow two or more discrete groups to function equally and separately, with no assimilation expectation or requirement of one into the other. These groups are often established as a result of refusing or not being allowed to assimilate into the dominant culture, and maintain their own unique communities. Understanding cultural differences is still a societal and educational issue. More understanding, commitment, and research is needed before individuals truly embrace cultural pluralism.

Overview

Today, the United States is significantly more diverse than ever, representing not only obvious differences like gender and race, but also diverse classes, native languages, sexual orientations, religions, ages, and physical and mental abilities. The population will increasingly become more and more diverse as we move further into the new millennium. Children of color will make up half the school-age population by the year 2040, and white Americans will comprise less than half of the US population by 2055, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. As the United States ethnic population changes, variations in languages, values, and ideas will be seen nationwide, including in American schools, where multicultural education is, and will continue to be a vital part of educating children (Gollnick & Chinn, 2006).

Multicultural education is an educational approach that integrates four factors into a curriculum to encourage diversity and equality:

• The instruction of students from different backgrounds,
• The study of ethnic and other cultural groups,
• The development of critical thinking skills, and
• A focus on human relations (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick & Dupuis, 2004).

Cognitive, behavioral, and humanistic strategies are all incorporated into multicultural education, which lends itself to current educational, counseling, sociological and psychological programs (Obiakor, 2007; Smith, Richards, MacGranley, & Obiakor, 2004).

Roots in the Civil Rights Movement. The foundation for multicultural education came from the fight for equal opportunity in the early 1960s. As women, low-income citizens and others from oppressed ethnic and religious group fought for various equalities, they also fought to have the same educational opportunities as white men. Despite opposition from the community, courageous educators from minority groups established schools to support underrepresented groups of people. For example, in 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, separate-but-equal education for African American and White students was declared illegal by the Supreme Court. This case, along with other civil rights fights, opened the door for multicultural education, making room for education about African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans and Native Americans in the classroom. Along with these events, issues regarding equality for women, people with disabilities and limited-English speakers were given attention (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick & Dupuis, 2004).

Culturally Pluralistic Groups. Cultural pluralism in education also evolved from the struggle for equal opportunity and has a long history in the United States. Culturally pluralistic groups are societies that allow two or more discrete groups to function equally and separately, with no assimilation expectation or requirement of one into the other. These groups are often established as a result of refusing to, or not being allowed to, assimilate into the dominate culture, and maintain their own unique communities. Members of culturally pluralistic groups believe that being different does not mean they are inferior. They establish agencies, institutions and governing structures that run services within their ethnic communities. Examples of culturally pluralistic communities include ethnic neighborhoods such as those known as Little Italy, Korea Town, Chinatown, Harlem and Amish communities. In some areas, deaf and/or blind individuals have developed communities made up of people with similar disabilities that they feel comfortable with (Gollnick & Chinn, 2006; Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006).

The foundation for cultural pluralism is based on a belief in equal opportunity for all individuals, respect for human dignity, and the understanding and acceptance that no one pattern of living must be the standard for everyone. In addition, cultural differences are seen as differences but not deficits (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006). Though the Brown decision ruled that schools must consider race as a significant cultural force, it did little for culturally pluralistic differences in schools like disabilities, religion, or social class. Campbell (1976) explains that cultural pluralism in the schools deals with the need to recognize the diverse groups of students from different cultures and sub-cultures, and acknowledge that school attitudes and programs are affected by these differences.

Roots in the Constitution. Appleton (1983) writes that some believe cultural pluralism in the United States gained its roots from the pluralistic vision of the writers of the Constitution. Though their concern was with establishing and maintaining a standard of one dominant culture among the various political and economic factors represented among the thirteen states at that time, liberty and equality were a primary focus. During the later part of the eighteenth century, some diversity existed, but the cultural stock of America was predominately British, and acknowledging historic identities of non-English citizens was not top priority. Although at this time, laws had been established that mandated the adoption of the first ten amendments of the Constitution, cultural pluralism as a standard used to protect ethnic and cultural diversity had not been realized and did not evolve until years later.

The Era of Immigration. The history of cultural pluralism can be traced back to a period between 1880 and 1920 when immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe, Japan, Korea and Southeast Asia came to the U.S. Approximately thirty to forty million people came, increasing the population from fifty million to almost one hundred million. Industrialization, urbanization and an increase in large-scale corporations all came about with help from the increase in the population. This influx however, was not free of serious social problems, over-crowed ghettos, an increase in crime and political corruption, labor conflicts, and dissatisfaction among the working-class poor (Appleton, 1983).

The dominant native-born White-Anglo-Saxon-Protestants were the first to react to the new groups who had immigrated to the U.S. Their first order of business was to immediately and forcibly assimilate the millions of immigrants into the mainstream of American society. American public schools played a significant role in this assimilation through their efforts to "Americanize" children of immigrants. Children were taught using a strict Anglocentric curriculum. They were scolded if they used their native languages and teachers often belittled their cultural traditions and values they had been taught by their parents (Appleton, 1983).

The First Calls for Multicultural Education. In the early 1970s, the issue with U. S. schooling and its sole consideration of the majority population caused many educators and minority groups to become vocal. Citizens believed that the country was interested in genuine democracy but educators and minority groups argued that this was not the case for American schools. Failing to provide equal educational opportunities to disadvantaged students, minority groups and concerned educators called for multicultural education in the schools, and demanded that unique cognitive and learning styles, cultural norms, language patterns and communication styles of socioeconomic and ethnic minority groups be acknowledged. They also advocated for more sensitivity toward differences among children in the schools (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006).

The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) is one of the largest and most prominent organizations interested in teacher preparation. It has established a history of involvement in matters regarding preparing and supporting teachers, counselors and other educational leaders. In 1972, the board of directors of the AACTE officially endorsed efforts to use schools to achieve cultural pluralism in society. At that time, AACTE's involvement suggested a severe urgency and therefore brought on increased interest and concern regarding cultural pluralism in education (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006).

Ill-prepared teachers were identified as key to the issues concerning cultural pluralism in the classrooms. This move prompted the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) to establish a new standard. The NCATE (1977) is the professional accrediting organization for schools, colleges, and departments of education in the U. S. that represents teachers, teacher educators, policymakers, and the public. It has stipulated the following standard for multicultural education: "The institution gives evidence of planning for multicultural education in its teacher education curricula including both the general and professional studies components" (p. 4). This standard has influenced cultural pluralism in the schools in general, but particularly the growth in teacher education programs in regards to multicultural education (Hill-Jackson, Sewell, Waters, 2007).

Today, there is still much work to be done to realize cultural pluralism as an accepted ideology and a part of multicultural education in U.S. schools. Pai, Adler & Shadiow (2006) explain that although individual competence and achievement is being used more and more to determine a child's position and merit in the schools, minority children are still disadvantaged because their status continues to be affected by racism or other differences. Minority youth are discovering that they don't belong to the dominant culture and don't have the same privilege as white students.

Pride & Identity. The culturally pluralistic ideology indicates that developing pride in one's own racial and cultural heritage is important. Children should be helped with developing this pride and understanding their unique identities. They should understand and believe that they are worthwhile individuals and should be valued just as much as any other individual of any other race. Minority children should be taught to reject the belief that, because they are different, they are inferior. Children of poor ethnic minorities, children whose parents are considered middle-class in socioeconomic status, as well as children in the upper-middle class, all need encouragement to support any identity crises they may experience (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006). U.S. schools should be open to these ideals and should be willing to embrace them.

Integrating Cultural Pluralism in the Schools. In recent years, a great amount of educational theory has focused on the ideology of cultural pluralism and it has been directed toward educators to use in driving educational practice. However, little progress has been made in creating, implementing and maintaining programs related to cultural pluralism in education (Melendez, 1995).

Though teachers are expected to play a significant role in the integration of cultural pluralism in the schools, cultural biases have stood in the way. For example, some teachers judge the behavior of minority and low-income students as more deviant than white students and students who are wealthier (Grossman, 2002; Sbarra & Pianta, 2001). Other examples include the biases that cause achievement gaps among students. Though parents rely on teachers to identify disabilities and short-comings in students, some teachers selectively exclude students who they feel are "different," and use their cultural biases to label those they feel should be placed in special education classes (Skrtic, 2003; Utley & Obiakor, 2001).

Teachers must seek appropriate training to ensure that they are culturally competent and can meet the needs of every student in the classroom. They should be creative when developing their classrooms and curriculums, and create a welcoming atmosphere for students, parents and staff. Teachers should also learn about various teaching methods that will support diverse groups of students to ensure they have positive learning experiences (Obiakor, 2007).

Further Insights

Challenges that Lie Ahead

Need for Culturally Diverse Teachers. Respect for culturally pluralistic communities is realized only when teachers understand cultural differences. Because all students, despite gender, race, ethnicity, social class, or cultural characteristics, deserve an equal opportunity to be educated, teachers are expected to have the knowledge and skills to relate to many cultures and understand student diversity as it continues to grow (Banks, 1998; Banks et. al., 2001). Almost half (40%) of the learners in classrooms will be children of color by the year 2010, and by 2040 that percentage will be at 50%. However, the teaching population remains almost 85% White and female (Applied Research Center, 2000; Gollnick & Chinn, 2006).

Need for Cultural Competence. A person's knowledge of and various experiences with the beliefs, traditions and morals of cultures different from oneself, all encompass a cultural understanding and cultural competence (Grant & Sleeter, 2006). Cultural understanding also involves being in touch with one's own culture, practices and beliefs (Morrier, Irving, Dandy, Dmitriyev, & Ukeje, 2007). However, the manner in which educators have responded to the demographic shift (racial, cultural, linguistic) in student learners has not been sufficient, leaving some students less prepared than others because of cultural incompetence. Not only is it important that teachers are culturally competent and have a good understanding of cultural pluralism for academic purposes, it is also necessary for them to have the ability to respond to a child appropriately, despite their differences. For example, the self-esteem of a student from a different racial, linguistic, or cultural background can be affected based on a negative or positive response from a teacher (Brown, 2007).

Need for Uniform Training. Although teaching multicultural education has been a hot topic in many teacher education programs across the country (Miller, Strosnider, & Dooley, 2000), incorporating its standards for certification and endorsement programs has been a struggle for most institutions of higher education (Morrier, Irving, Dandy, Dmitriyev, & Ukeje, 2007). Multicultural or diversity training is required for 82% of the states that have teacher preparation programs in the United States, but only 37% of the states have established a specific teacher certification requirement (Evans, Torrey, & Newton, 1997; Miller et. al., 2000). To add, cross-cultural training for states that have established criteria vary significantly from state to state, with some states having a more difficult set of criteria than others (Morrier, Irving, Dandy, Dmitriyev & Ukeje, 2007).

An educators understanding of multicultural education and the role cultural pluralism plays in the educating of children is key to the success of developing a culturally diverse society. The cultural pluralism philosophy deals primarily with the way a society should be organized, and the socialization process for future generations. However, there is still no comprehensive, systemic guide of this philosophy and little has been done to test its assumptions. Little is known about the effects of living in a culturally pluralistic society along with those who don't. More research is needed with regard to intergroup relations and the meaning of cultural pluralism, its nature and how relevant its practices are in a modern industrialized society. More implications for problems regarding prejudices, and discrimination are needed to better understand the effect. Promoting enhanced culturally pluralistic societies in terms of multicultural education continues to be at issue (Tesconi, 1984).

Viewpoints

The Problem with Cultural Pluralism. Maintaining enough separation between minority groups and the dominant culture, that allows minority groups to develop their own unique traditions without abandoning their responsibilities to the American society, is a central problem for the cultural pluralism ideal. This is especially challenging when conflict arises between the dominant society and the cultural units within the society. Some suggest resolving conflict by voting on various issues, however, the preference is to eliminate or reduce conflict by encouraging parties to be flexible, and avoid imposing one value onto others as if it were the only choice (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006).

Providing diverse groups with a variety of alternatives to choose from can eliminate value conflicts between groups. Choosing to learn the dominant language and patterns of behavior to work outside of one's ethnic group for example, is an option that should be afforded to individuals. However, individuals should also have the option to remain within their cultural groups, working in a manner that would serve the members of their own community (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006).

Opponents of Cultural Pluralism. Despite the call for a society that embraces cultural pluralism, opponents continue to argue that the U.S. should be an open society. In this case, the primary determinants of worth as an individual are individual merit and competence. This position emphasizes national unity and individual equality instead of cultural diversity, and each member of the society from any minority group is a citizen of the country first, and a member of a subculture second (Pai, Adler & Shadiow, 2006).

Terms & Concepts

American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE): The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE) is a national voluntary association of higher education institutions and other organizations and is dedicated to ensuring the highest quality preparation and continuing professional development for teachers and school leaders in order to enhance PK-12 student learning.

Assimilation: Assimilation is the process of smaller culture groups adopting or changing to the values and ideals of the dominant culture.

Brown v. Board of Education: The 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case declared that separate-but-equal education for African American and White students was illegal.

Cultural Incompetence: Cultural incompetence is the act of ineffectively relating to the culture and values of diverse others.

Cultural Pluralism: Cultural pluralism describes societies that allow two or more discrete groups to function equally and separately, with no assimilation expectation or requirement of one into the other.

Culture: Culture refers to socially driven ways of thinking, believing, feeling and acting within a group of individuals, that are passed on from generation to generation.

Curriculum: The curriculum is the planned educational activities offered by a school or institution, which can take place during a specified period of time.

Diversity: Diversity is the wide range of differences among people, communities, and families based on cultural and ethnic backgrounds, physical abilities and academic abilities.

Equal Opportunity: Equal opportunity refers to fairness and justice across individual differences.

Ethnicity: Ethnicity refers to one's national origin or the national origin of one's ancestors.

Multicultural Education: Multicultural education is an educational approach that integrates four factors into a curriculum, that encourage diversity and equality: the instruction of students from different backgrounds, the study of ethnic and other cultural groups, the development of critical thinking skills, and a focus on human relations.

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE): NCATE is the professional accrediting organization for schools, colleges, and departments of education in the U.S. that represents teachers, teacher educators, policymakers, and the public.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB): NCLB is a federal plan instituted in 2001 that called for schools to make annual gains in test scores on a pace that would have all students meeting state-defined standards by the year 2014. In 2015 NCLB was replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act.

Teacher Education: Teacher education refers to programs that help teachers develop quality and effective teaching and learning strategies to use in the classroom.

Teacher Preparation Programs: Teacher preparation programs are courses of study that prepare candidates to become certified teachers within the K-12 school system. Programs offer candidates specific courses in general education, subject matter preparation, professional education, special seminars and colloquia, and other opportunities for practical field experiences.

Bibliography

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Smith, T. B., Richards, P. S., MacGranley, H., & Obiakor, F. E. (2004). Practicing multiculturalism: An introduction. In T. B. Smith (Ed.), Practicing multiculturalism: Affirming diversity in counseling and psychology (pp. 3-16). Boston: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

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Utley, C. A., & Obiakor, F. E. (2001). Special education, multicultural education, and school reform: Components of quality education for learners with mild disabilities. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas.

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Suggested Reading

Banks, J. A. (1975). Cultural pluralism and the schools. Education Digest, 40 , 21-23. Retrieved November 9, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18683494&site=ehostlive

Brookfield, S. D. & Preskill, S. (1999). Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Brown, P. L. & Abell, S. K. (2007). Cultural diversity in the science classroom. Science and Children, 44 , 60-61. Retrieved August 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25445454&site=ehost-live Delpit, L. (1995). Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York: The New Press.

Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53 , 106-16.

Hollins, E., & Guzman, M. T. (2005). Research on preparing teachers for diverse populations. In M. Cochran-Smith & K. Zeichner (Eds.), Studying teacher education (pp. 477-548). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Howard, G. (2007). As diversity grows, so must we. Educational Leadership, 64 , 16- 22. Retrieved August 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24657419&site=ehost-live

Moule, J. (1998). My journey with preservice teachers: Reflecting on teacher characteristics that bridge multicultural education theory and classroom practice. Doctoral dissertation, Oregon State University, Corvallis.

Sharma, S. A., Kasten, W. C., Smolen, L. A., Gupta, A., Kidd, J. K., Wright, T. S., & Clifton, Y. (2016). Preparing culturally responsive teachers to meet the diverse needs in today's classroom: Phase one of a national study of literacy teacher educators. International Journal of Pedagogy & Curriculum, 23(2), 59–74. Retrieved January 26, 2018, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=121219959&site=ehost-live&scope=site