Cultural Pluralism (Sociology)

The notion of cultural pluralism describes the ways in which distinct cultural groups maintain their own unique identity within a much larger society. This is often not easy, as the larger society tends to function as a whole and not within individual groups. Government and other controlling organizations such as education and health care are centralized and tend to be focused on a homogenous philosophy. There are certain societies around the world that have famous systems of cultural pluralism. One of the most well known of these is India, with its highly defined caste system. The United States may not have such a highly defined system, but it is most definitely pluralistic in nature. There are numerous cultural groups that continue to live amongst each other and maintain their own unique cultural identities.

Keywords Acculturation; Afrikaans; Apartheid; Assimilation; Biculturalism; Caste System; Collectivism; Cultural Identity; Cultural Pluralism; Homogenous; Individualism; Rituals; Traditions; Values; Welfare State

Cultural Pluralism

Overview

Cultural Pluralism in the United States

The United States is an excellent example of cultural pluralism. For example, in a major city such as Los Angeles, one can find a broad range of cultural communities that offer their own unique identity to the wider community. On any given day one can see evidence of the Armenian culture, Korean, Chinese, Jewish, Latino/Hispanic, and Persian. These are just a few of the communities that proudly exhibit their cultural heritage. Families in these communities maintain the rituals and traditions of their culture. They also attend their own prayer facilities such as churches, synagogues, mosques, and ashrams.

However, there is another side to cultural pluralism. Many people in these distinct cultural communities often feel a tremendous of pressure to assimilate. They feel that when/if they display too much of their unique identity they may not have access to the same opportunities for advancement in education or employment. Some feel the need to assimilate rather than acculturate. Acculturation is the process that takes place when two distinct cultural groups come into contact and there is a giving and receiving relationship in which both give and take. Assimilation is the process by which people of smaller cultural communities eventually take on the norms, values, and belief systems of the larger group.

For a long time, the nickname of the United States was the "melting pot," because it is a land of immigrants. Immigration from a broad range of countries has given the US a totally unique identity. This identity is one of a larger group that acculturates the smaller groups. Thus, these smaller communities maintain their own unique identity while they continue to interact with the larger culture. Yet, in a country like the US, it is often difficult to identify that "larger culture." There may be reason to suggest that in fact, the US is entirely an "immigrant-dependent culture." In a welfare state as large as the US, the maintenance of individual ethnic identities is not always easy. Banting describes one of the challenges a multicultural nation faces:

One of the most compelling challenges facing Western democracies is how to maintain and strengthen the bonds of community in ethnically diverse societies. How can we reconcile growing levels of multicultural diversity and the sense of a common identity which sustains the norms of mutual support and underpins a generous welfare state? (Banting, 2005, p. 98).

In many ways, this mimics the age-old dilemma of individualism versus collectivism—the freedom of the individual versus the needs of the larger society as a whole and the society to work together as one.

Ethnic Identity

Ethnic identity is considered one of the primary means of personal identification. It provides us with a means of knowing who we are, where we came from, and the values of our cultural group. With respect to maintaining identity, biculturalism is considered increasingly more adaptive than either acculturation or assimilation: "…biculturalism as a unique blending of heritage and receiving culture elements…cross-cultural theory and research has consistently identified biculturalism as the most adaptive acculturation strategy for young immigrants…" (Schwartz, Zamboanga, Rodriguez, & Wang, 2007, p. 169).

One of the means of adapting to life in America is learning English, although not all people who immigrate choose to do so. English is by far the most universal language in the world. Still, for millions, it is not the native language and they never quite feel that they can express themselves adequately in English. Leontovitch (2005) explains, "No matter how talented people are, they can never become 100 percent bilingual if they come into a culture after their native tongue has been established and remains the leading one" (p. 529).

In terms of living within American culture, some researchers suggest that it does not have to be all or nothing, and assert that people can develop something called an intercultural personality (Schwartz et al., 2007). Similar to the theory of biculturalism, they maintain specific traits and mannerisms characteristic of their native culture in conjunction with adopting some of the traits and mannerisms indicative of "American culture" (Leontovoich, 2005).

Smith (2004) suggests that some cultural groups, especially African Americans, live in a kind of "insider-outsider" existence. They are not the dominant majority, but no longer are they living a life that excludes them in ways it once did. Still, Smith believes that many stereotypes continue to flourish about African Americans and their cultural identity, which perpetuates prejudice in American society. He states:

As an African American faculty member, I have been mistaken for the waiter at a university professional development workshop and listened to my white colleagues complain that other African Americans were given administrative positions solely based on race. Similar daily experiences of African American faculty illustrate that marginality is embedded in individual and institutional attitudes and behaviors (Smith, 2004, p. 60–61).

International Perspectives on Cultural Pluralism

Israel

Even with all of the difficulties cultural groups have in maintaining identity in a country as large and nationalistic as the US there are countries that are considerably smaller that cope with the same issues, such as Israel. Perhaps there is no country in the world (except the US) that is as largely multicultural as Israel. In fact, Israel exists because of immigration from Europe, South America, India, United States, Canada, and other areas. Of course it is widely known that Israel's first inhabitants may well have been a grouping of various Middle Eastern cultures including the Palestinians.

The issue is related to the division of Israeli society into national, ethnic, religious, and class-based groups, each of which is attempting to pursue its own particular struggle to promote its welfare and thus advance its position in Israeli society (Doron, 2007, p. 93).

A country that relies heavily on immigration yet at the same time struggles with creating an "Israeli identity, " Israel also tries to recognize the unique qualities of each of these individual cultural groups. Israel prides itself on national solidarity in order to survive, but many of these groups want to maintain their own cultural identity. According to Doron, "The most prominent factor in the division of Israeli society relates to national background. The Arabs, including Moslems, Christians, Druze, and other smaller groups comprise about 20 percent of the total population of the country" (Doron, 2007, p. 93).

Ireland

Another country that struggles with its own identity and those of the unique groups that create its multicultural mosaic is Ireland. The religious divisions in Ireland are well known. Still, there has been no resolution to this centuries-old conflict between Irish Protestants and Irish Catholics. Ireland also copes with those who maintain loyalty to the "Crown of England" (in other words, the Queen and her descendants) and those Irish who are staunch nationalists and want to maintain Ireland's independence (Finlay, 2007).

Pluralism in Ireland may be bicultural, but it shares much with multiculturalism, and elsewhere in the world multiculturalism developed as a radical critique of the assumptions about humanity, knowledge, reason, power, and progress that underpinned the political ideologies—socialism as much as liberal democracy—that emerged from the European Enlightenment and the French Revolution (Finlay, 2007, p. 335).

It is easy to see why cultural identity and the very notion of "being Irish" are extremely complicated in Ireland. When these types of deep religious and nationalist agendas are in conflict with each other, then what emerges is a sense that some (or even one) identity is being privileged over another. In Ireland, as in other multicultural or culturally pluralistic societies, cultural identity is chosen rather than simply inherited. "Culture can no longer be understood simply as the inherited way of life of a group or a people; rather, it is better understood as symbolic practice, a contested process through which we attach meaning to our lives and our world" (Finlay, 2007, p. 340).

South Africa

As a country that lived with one of the most prejudicial of pluralistic divisions in the world, South Africa struggled with what was known as apartheid for decades. Apartheid was formally dismantled in 1993. Although the system no longer exists, the ramifications of the racially divided world South Africans lived in for centuries are still evident.

Although the post-apartheid constitution has been heralded as true reform, there are still deep divisions in the country. There are strong cultural and religious divisions in South Africa. This country was strongly impacted by Dutch and British colonialism and the intrusion of these two cultures created cultural differences that still linger. "Ethnically, South Africa consists of various groups of black South Africans, white South Africans, mixed-race South Africans, Indians, and Asians" (Goodsell, 2007, p. 116).

These are not the only divisions. There are very distinct cultures that have lived in South Africa for centuries and long before the Dutch or British decided to take over the country. These cultures include the Zulu, the Xhosa, the Ndebele, and the Khoisan. Among South Africans there are also differences between the ways people live and dress, especially among urban and rural black South Africans (Goodsell, 2007).

There are also those people who consider themselves Afrikaans. They are the descendants of the Dutch who colonized South Africa in the middle of the seventeenth century. Many of these Afrikaans continue to speak this language/dialect today and it is considered an official language in South Africa. Along with the descendants of the Dutch, there are the white descendants of the British. South Africa also has a wide range of religious divisions including Christian, Roman Catholic, Dutch Reform, and the Apostolic Faith (Goodsell, 2007).

These cultural, religious, and political differences only underscore the fact that South Africa, like Israel, Ireland, and the US, faces a long-standing dilemma of how to create and encourage national unity at the same time as respecting unique cultural identities no matter how small or large the cultural group may be.

Further Insights

Politics & Cultural Pluralism

Politics has a part to play in cultural pluralism. One of the ways politics and multiculturalism interact is in the way government reinforces a national identity and the right to an individual cultural identity. In a country such as the United States, Canada, or Great Britain, the dominant philosophy is known as liberal democracy. The premise behind this is that in the eyes of the government and (supposedly) the law, everyone is considered equal. Yet, that has hardly been the reality for many people of cultural minorities who live in these countries. For example, "In America, African-Americans, Hispanics, and gays and lesbians have been treated as second-class citizens. In Britain, the list includes Afro-Caribbeans, South Asians, and Gypsies" (Conover, Searing, & Crew, 2007, p. 1037).

This designation of "second class citizenship" is nothing new as a class system has existed (and still does) in both countries since their inception. Some might suggest that liberty and equality for all are very nice concepts but that is really all they are. They are ideals that we can strive for, but in reality they are unattainable. In any pluralistic society there is always a dominant group and those who form the power structures are often primarily wealthy, white males. Great Britain has only had one female prime minister (Margaret Thatcher) and never a leader of color. The US has only had one minority president and never a female one. As Conover, et al. (2007) suggest: "…members of cultural minorities find that acceptance as equal citizens requires assimilation to the majority's preferred values and way of life" (p. 1038).

Therefore, while a country can guarantee civil rights in a constitution or other official document, no country or government can force people to get along or tolerate one another. Thus, highly pluralistic societies like the US are more likely to experience problems related to ethnic differences and even ethnic related violence. Yet, this does not mean nothing can be done:

Treating citizens as equals therefore requires equal support and protection for their cultures through policies that range from giving their beliefs and practices recognition in the educational system and public events, to institutionalizing minority rights in affirmative action programs and the legal system, to group representation in political and civic institutions (Conover et al., 2007, p. 1039).

Most people who live in pluralistic societies maintain a dual identity. They assume a national identity (for example they identify themselves as American) and they have a personal, cultural identity (Hispanic American). From a political perspective, Americans have a strong sense of national identity and a real pride in stating that they are "Americans." This pride in being an American citizen (a political identity) continues to be a long sought-after goal for millions of people who have immigrated to the US.

Religion & Cultural Pluralism

Religion continues to be both a unifying and divisive force in a pluralistic society. Israel is an excellent example of this, as many of its political parties are divided along religious lines. Although the majority of the people do not identify themselves as religious, the state continues to practice and enforce certain religious notions. For example, the official policy is that from Friday sundown to Saturday sundown (the Jewish Sabbath) everything in Israel is to be closed–including all shops, offices, and transportation (Doron, 2007). But, just as religion unifies Israelis, it also divides them. There are those who feel that the religious parties have far too much influence on Israeli life. Then, there are those who are religious fundamentalists who continue to defy the government and build "illegal settlements." They do so based on what they call "fundamental religious rights" (Doron, 2007).

Israel is not the only country to be divided by religion. The US has been facing an enormous dilemma in this area. The country is strongly divided along religious lines on issues such as abortion and gay rights. For a very long time, the US was primarily a "Christian country" since its colonizers were typically of the Christian faith. Today however, the US has people of all faiths— Judaism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam. This new religious diversity is accompanied by a different cultural philosophy. The people who have immigrated to the US since the 1960s have brought this religious diversity with them, and they are also more inclined to maintain their cultural identity than those who immigrated to the US in the past (Phan, 2004).

Some would suggest that the US is also making positive strides in the arena of cultural pluralism; that unique differences are actually being embraced rather than rejected. Phan (2004) states:

One of the reasons for this movement is not only pride in one's own cultural heritage but also the perception that the so-called common American culture is nothing more than a particular culture, namely, Anglo-Saxon, which is imposed on other ethnic and racial groups (p. 719).

In a country as large and diverse as the US it is highly unlikely that more than 316 million people will agree on everything. But, if there is freedom to express and believe in one's own unique identity, that is an enormous step forward.

Conclusion

Cultural pluralism is a gift that humanity bestows upon itself. It is the gift of our differences, our unique ways of seeing and celebrating the world around us. Of course, a pluralistic society is also a challenge, since sometimes our differences divide, rather than unite us. Thus, we have the challenge of trying to create multicultural societies where equality of people is not just an ideal but a lived reality. Many groups are still living marginalized existences and their own culture is often either ignored or discriminated against by the dominant culture. It is a shame that even while we speak of our appreciation for other cultures, beliefs, rituals, and traditions, we also demonstrate intolerance for certain differences and not others.

Terms & Concepts

Acculturation: The process of adopting the social patterns or cultural traits of another group.

Afrikaans: The descendants of the Dutch who colonized South Africa in the seventeenth century.

Apartheid: The former policy of complete segregation between whites and blacks in the Republic of South Africa.

Assimilation: The process whereby a cultural or ethnic group is absorbed into the larger group or community.

Caste System: The term used for the cultural and religious divisions in India.

Collectivism: Refers to prioritizing the group over the individual.

Cultural Identity: Is both an individual and group process. We assume a cultural identity as a person, that is, our primary cultural identification, and we identify with a larger culture.

Cultural Pluralism: The presence and acceptance of various ethnic, religious, and cultural groups within a single society.

Individualism: Refers to prioritizing the individual over the group.

Ritual: An established or required form of religious or other daily routine.

Traditions: Practices recognized as a body of unchanging customs that are adhered to in daily life.

Values: “The ideals, customs, institutions, etc., of a society toward which the people of the group have an affective regard. These values may be positive, as cleanliness, freedom, or education, or negative, as cruelty, crime, or blasphemy” (Dictionary.com).

Welfare State: A state in which the government takes part in ensuring the welfare of citizens through the provision of social security, health and education, housing, and working condition regulations.

Bibliography

Banting, K. J. (2005). The multicultural welfare state: International experience and North American narratives. Social Policy & Administration, 39 , 98–115. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16341931&site=ehost-live

Chan, C. (2013). "Assimilationism" versus "integrationalism" revisited: The Free School of the Khong Kauw Hwee Semarang. SOJOURN: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 28, 329–350. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89370883&site=ehost-live

Conover, P. J., Searing, D. D., & Crewe, I. (2004). The elusive ideal of equal citizenship: Political theory and political psychology in the United States and Great Britain. Journal of Politics, 66 , 1036–1068. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14603432&site=ehost-live

Doron, A. (2007). Multiculturalism and the erosion of support for the universalistic welfare state: The Israeli experience. Israel Studies, 12 , 92–108. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=26452224&site=ehost-live

Finlay, A. (2007). Irish studies, cultural pluralism and the peace process. Irish Studies Review, 15 , 333–345. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25958544&site=ehost-live

Goodsell, E. E. (2007). Constitution, custom, and creed: Balancing human rights concerns with cultural and religious freedom in today's South Africa. BYU Journal of Public Law, 111–154. Retrieved August 13, 2008, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=27130224&site=ehost-live

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Leontovich, O. A. (2005). American English as a medium of intercultural communication. World Englishes, 24 , 523–532, 2005. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=18904295&site=ehost-live

Merelman, R. M. (1994). Racial conflict and cultural politics in the United States. Retrieved August 13, 2008, from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. Journal of Politics, 56 . http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9406201534&site=ehost-live

Phan, P.C. (2004). Cultures, religions, and power: Proclaiming Christ in the United States today. Theological Studies, 65 , 714–740. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15139697&site=ehost-live

Schwartz, S., Zamboanga, B. L., Rodriguez, L. & Wang, S.C. (2007). The structure of cultural identity in an ethnically diverse sample of emerging adults. Basic And Applied Social Psychology, 29 , 159–173. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25183456&site=ehost-live

Siame, C. N. (2012). Relativism in Berlin's cultural pluralism. Theoria: A Journal of Social & Political Theory, 59 , 42–58. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=74276279&site=ehost-live

Smith, Sherwood. (2004). Insider and outsider status: An African American perspective. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 104, 57–65. Retrieved August 13, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15359300&site=ehost-live

Young, L., Kozak, M., Nancoo, C. P., Hao-Min, C., Middendorft, K., & Gale, J. (2013). Exploring dominant discourses: Creating spaces to find voice and cultural identity. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 20, 21–29. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=86263395&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Bevir, M. (2012). Modern pluralism: Anglo-American debates since 1880. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Brooks, S. (2002). The challenge of cultural pluralism. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Cheatham, H. E. (1993). Cultural Pluralism on Campus. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

Conle, C., Blanchard, D., Burton, K., Higgins, A., & Kelly, M. (2007) The asset of cultural pluralism. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publications, Inc.

Deaveaux, M. (2000). Cultural pluralism and dilemmas of justice. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Hunt, T. C., & Carper, J. C. (1997). Religion and schooling in contemporary America: Confronting our cultural pluralism. New York, NY: Garland Publishing.

Norgren, J., & Nanda, S. (1996). American cultural pluralism and law. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Talisse, R. (2012). Pluralism and liberal politics. New York, NY: Routledge.