Epistemology

An overview of epistemology and knowledge, and incorporates a series of historical and current philosophers that have grappled with this concept throughout the centuries, such as Plato and Lehrer is presented. Additionally, an examination of the work conducted by world-renowned psychologists Jean Piaget and Sigmund Freud, who are often associated solely for their psychologically-driven contributions, is included with regard to their input on genetic epistemology, and epistemology as it relates to the "psychosexual stages of development." The second portion of this article is more applied, and relates theoretical epistemological tenets to educational and psychological settings. Differentiation between epistemology that focuses on process, content, and ethics is outlined, and concepts related to Aristotelian epistemology (i.e., that which is theoretical, qualitative, and performative) are broached. Albert Einstein's disillusionment with educational institutions and his thoughts on re-aligning academia so that it parallels creative ventures are discussed, followed by a short segue into a simplistic story-telling technique that serves as an epistemological device.

Keywords Aristotelian Epistemology; Epistemology; Equilibrium; Genetic Epistemology; Knowledge; Plato; Psychosexual Stages of Development; Reasoned True Belief

Educational Theory > Epistemology

Overview

Knowledge & Epistemology

Epistemology, or the theory of knowledge (Hillerbrand, 1988), is a philosophical principle that has been investigated throughout the centuries by the world's greatest intellects, including Descartes, Durkheim, Bernard, Aristotle, and Plato. Plato classified knowledge (i.e., reasoned true belief) as the existence of three concepts: truth, belief, and evidence (Southerland, Sinatra & Matthews, 2001), and defined truth as that which reflects reality. Belief occurs when people grant authenticity toward such a truth, and evidence is a person's ability to defend such a stance. To exemplify the interaction of this tertiary ideal, one might assume that Jane is interested in crossing a bridge and needs to determine the safety of such an activity, and relies on her knowledge base and ability to reason. Visually, Jane can see that the bridge is built out of steel and concrete, which coincide with the materials of bridges that she has previously crossed. Therefore, she believes that the bridge is safe, and this belief is grounded in reality, or truth. Also, Jane's sister Sally previously crossed the bridge and arrived safely on the other side. Sally is of similar height and stature to Jane, thus providing convincing evidence that the bridge is indeed safe. The decision-making process that allowed her to come to such a conclusion is based on the three-fold conception of knowledge set forth by Plato.

Keith Lehrer

According to American philosopher Keith Lehrer (1990), knowledge can be depicted in terms of a person's proficiency in any given arena (e.g., "I know how to play the piano") as well as a means of indicating relationships (e.g., "I know Bob Smith"). Additionally, a person's knowledge is also representative of his or her established amount of accurate information. Information, in itself, is insufficient; if I look at my watch, which reads 3:00, I have acquired information regarding the time. However, unbeknownst to me, my watch broke several hours ago and therefore my acquisition of information is inadequate for the accurate possession of knowledge. The ability to decipher accurate information distinguishes human beings from other animals.

Moreover, Lehrer offers three conditions that serve as underpinnings for knowledge that resembles that which was proposed by Plato, including truth, acceptance, and justification. However, there are many inconsistencies that denote the obscurity of such a theory, and are therefore worthy of discussion. For example, a mother has a child that leaves for college, and is under the impression that the child is faring quite well. However, this acceptance of truth represents the mother's desire that her child is doing well, and is not based on a legitimate assessment. Thus, her willingness to consent to such a delusion is reinforced by the corresponding feelings of gratification that accompany her faulty belief. Therefore, one can infer that acceptance is not always based on truth.

Lehrer stipulates that "complete justification" surrounding what a person accepts is a necessary aspect of knowledge, as opposed to partial justification, in order to avoid making flawed assumptions. An example of partial justification is if Ann came to the determination that her husband would arrive home today at 12:00 noon from work, based on the fact that he always comes home at 12:00 noon for his lunch break. However, today, let us assume that her husband had an extended meeting, a flat tire, or was tempted to eat at a fancy restaurant in lieu of dining in with Ann. Hence her assumption, or partial judgment, defies that which is knowledge. Knowledge therefore, reflects complete justification of an accurate assessment on what one accepts as truth. This stance, as opposed to divergent opinions from philosophical predecessors who claim knowledge is a measurable and objective construct, assumes that although knowledge is based in accuracy, there is still a subjective air that affects its existence.

Jean Piaget

Piaget, one of the most eminent child psychologists of the 20th century, contributed greatly toward the understanding of child cognitions and is perhaps best known for highlighting the intellectual progress undertaken by the growing child. Incidentally, Piaget identified himself as neither a child psychologist, nor a genetic psychologist, but as a genetic epistemologist (Kitchner, 1986). According to Piaget, knowledge is the active relationship that people maintain with their surroundings. In other words, a young boy does not know how to tie his shoes because he passively observes his parents undertaking such a pursuit, but because he actively goes through the trial-and-error of crisscrossing the strands of lace that interweave his shoes. Moreover, Piaget felt that knowledge is reality-based, and that it is a limitless, never-ending process that continually evolves throughout the lives of human beings. He coined the term orthogenesis to refer to the fact that people intellectually strive for, and advance toward an ideal of infinite wisdom, but that they never arrive at such a destination point. Therefore, the nature of knowledge lies in an intellectual quest that is categorized through the progression of various stages, as opposed to an actual state of intellectualism (Tsou, 2006).

Moreover, Piaget emphasized the inherent need of people forging a sense of harmony or adaptation with their environment. He coined the term "equilibrium" to describe the cognitive process that enables such a system. People achieve equilibrium through the process of assimilation, whereby they incorporate new experiences into pre-existing schemata and accommodation, or the process of changing schemata to make room for new information. Piaget felt that the ability for assimilation and accommodation, or finding equilibrium, was the hallmark of a highly intelligent person who successfully progressed through the stages of cognitive development at a rapid pace. Piaget felt that the feeling of disequilibrium essentially was a positive force, as it motivated people to seek equilibrium. Since humans are creatures of comfort, and therefore seek equilibrium when they are in the throes of duress, the process of cognitive growth is initiated with each unpleasant new encounter.

Sigmund Freud

Similarly, Sigmund Freud, the famous psychologist who pioneered many innovative theories, can also be linked with epistemological contributions. A prominent psychological Freudian concept is the creation of his stage theory that delineates human development, termed the "psychosexual stages of development" (Miller & Stine, 1951), through which each human travels. Each stage of this theory (e.g., oral, anal, phallic) designates an area of the body (e.g., mouth, anus, genitals) that becomes the physiological focal point. Based on parental methods during each stage the child can progress normally, become overly indulged, or become neglected, each of which manifest into specific adult characteristics. For example, during the oral phase, infants are dependent on their mother's milk; if they do not receive an adequate level of dietary consumption, the resultant adult is "stuck" at the oral stage, and possesses corresponding traits (e.g., overindulged: optimistic, gullible; neglected: pessimistic, suspicious). Perhaps the most controversial element of the psychosexual stages is the phallic stage, which Freud explains through the use of the Sophocles parable "Oedipus Rex," where people who are stuck in this stage are deemed as having an "Oedipal Complex." This stage is highly complex, and involves individuals who, in the process of identifying with their same-sex parent, begin to harbor feelings of lust and romantic love toward their opposite-sex parent. Abnormal resolution to this stage involves a variety of deviant personality and sex-related disorders (Phillips & Franco, 1954).

Although most psychologists and scholars consider Freud's "psychosexual stages of development" solely as an indicator for eventual adult behavior, Schermer (1999) offers piercing insight into the Oedipal stage of development as a barometer for epistemological development. Freud believed that infants innately bear primitive instinctual drives, but that their intellectual abilities parallel that of the John Locke's "tabula rasa," (Vogt, 1993) or blank slate theory. This suggests that people's experiences, observations, and in Freud's case, resolution with the psychosexual stages of development, coalesce into their eventual intellectual resources. Like Piaget, Freud believed that intelligence and life experience were one and the same. Also, when children rectify the Oedipal complex in a healthy manner, it imparts an intellectual symbolic framework that demarcates the roles of a proper family structure (i.e., the child does not mate with the parent). This intellectual framework persists throughout adulthood by providing a continual model that outlines appropriate human relations.

Although children overcome the obstacles present at each stage of psychosexual development, based on their combined internal qualities and the amount of parental involvement they receive, adults retroactively reconcile fixation at a stage (e.g., oral, anal, phallic) if they find themselves "stuck," based upon their intellectual prowess. Through the process of healing "stage fixation" they may find enlightenment through intellectual processes such as insight, acknowledgment, and disclosure, while ignorance and/or denial stifles such cognitive growth. Moreover, Freud emphasized the importance of unconscious realms as contributing largely to a person's life experiences, including their fears, ambitions, characteristics, and intellectual capabilities. Such unconscious realms are difficult to ascertain, as they unknowingly emerge through a person's behavior, through dreams, parapraxes (i.e., "Freudian slips"), and psychoanalysis. Most people's unconscious motivations are hidden, and even though they are monumental indicators of intelligence, the analysis of such epistemological influences is often nebulous.

Applications

Dewey, Bagley & Schwab

Null (2003) differentiates three educational epistemological paradigms based on three educational philosophers: John Dewey, William C. Bagley, and Joseph Schwab. According to Dewey, education is about process. Regardless of the actual subject pupils study, the act of learning inevitably instills a sense of problem-solving or "how to think" skills. In other words, it doesn't matter if students take "English Literature" or "Basket-weaving," because each subject requires a complex series of cognitive processes that supercede the actual content that is derived. Moreover, the knowledge that is derived when students perfect such a process transcends into different content areas. As such, the intellectual process involved with basket-weaving can be applied toward learning subsequent subjects, even those that are seemingly unrelated (e.g., Math, Science, etc).

Bagley, on the other hand, focused on content as being the primary point of concern regarding knowledge transmission. He felt that schools place too much emphasis on the needs of the individual student, when in fact the individual student should hone disciplinary restraint and adhere to the educational principles set before him or her. Bagley asserted that, at the end of the educational experience students should depart with concrete knowledge, or content, that had been infused in them. A Math student, for example, who was learning about algebraic equations, should exit the course with the ability to solve problems related to such mathematical computations. Bagley, however, did not completely discount the process of learning and the application toward pertinent life realms. For example, if a group of geography students were lost in the wilderness it would be meaningful that they rely on the learned internal "compass" that they acquired in school by determining which direction was north, south, east, or west. Nevertheless, those same geography students should graduate from their geography studies with the ability to locate landmarks (e.g., the seven continents, the 50 states) on a map.

Finally, Schwab focused on the attainment of higher education, and how it relates to ethical and practical concerns. He felt that teachers-in-training should be equipped with real-life material, scenarios, and dilemmas to help define their educational pedagogy, as opposed to constructs that are more theoretical in nature. Null (2003, p. 407) differentiates between the two in the following passage: "In contrast to 'How do children learn?' an example of a practical question would be: 'What should I do right now with these students in this classroom in this school district with these teachers as my colleagues and with these materials available to me at this time?'" The emphasis, therefore, is neither on process nor content in and of themselves, but on the practical application that is specific to any given educational situation. Additionally, Schwab suggested that engaging in real-life situations increases the probability that students would witness realistic, unethical dilemmas. This exposure would serve as a rehearsal before they segued into their professional domains, and would provide them with the ability to size-up appropriate and ethical responses in an extemporaneous way.

Epistemology & Education

In the middle of the 20th century, Haggard (1954) expressed concern surrounding the direction that the field of psychology was heading. In particular, he felt that the turn of the 20th century was an innovative era for the discipline, which was filled with dedicated theorists who were conducting fertile research on epistemological matters (e.g., James, Dewey, Thorndike). But by the 1950s, such voracity segued into repetitive complacency, and research focused on practical, technique-oriented issues. Decades later, Hillerbrand (1988, p. 468) suggested that an epistemological model should be re-integrated into psychology graduate training programs, one that "addresses questions of how the psychology profession identifies, organizes, and communicates knowledge." In essence, this perspective suggests that without an understanding of the historical roots of knowledge, burgeoning psychologists are trained under vague or unfocused terms, yielding a profession that is riddled with ambiguity. As such, it would behoove the psychological community to emphasize Aristotelian epistemological tenets.

The Aristotelian tenets that Hillerbrand referenced were that rational knowledge could be categorized into three dimensions:

• Theoretical,

• Qualitative, and

• Performative.

Theoretical knowledge is a set of generalizations that do not necessarily seek evolution into a practical set of procedures, and represents the adage "knowledge for the sake of knowledge." In the field of psychology, one presumes to understand mental ailments through the process of generalizations, as indicated by therapists who theorize their universal ability to recognize depressed clientele by their behavior or affect. Qualitative knowledge, on the other hand is the ability to recognize and revel in individuality. Although in psychology, therapists might theoretically recognize the similarities between depressed clientele, they should also recognize that each individual has a unique, individualized, or qualitative manifestation of such angst. Performative knowledge relates to the procedural guidelines that help guide people toward appropriate ways of acting. Psychologically speaking, performative knowledge might dictate how a person behaves clinically (e.g., the style in which a therapist asks questions).

Albert Einstein is most notably known for his renowned contributions toward the worlds of scientific and mathematic inquiry, and within the domain of physics created the "Theory of Relativity," for which he was eventually awarded the Nobel Prize. In addition to such scholarly contributions, Einstein was a pacifist, humanitarian, and also upheld very specific thoughts on knowledge, knowledge acquisition, and education. Einstein himself, struggled in school throughout his formative years, and received very negative feedback from his teachers based on his lack of conformity toward classroom ideology. Once he matured into a seasoned intellect and established scientist, Einstein reflected on educational standards, and expounded on ideals that he claimed would espouse educational veracity (Hayes, 2007).

In particular, Einstein felt that schools should channel creativity and be a boundless arena for innovation, mystery, and exploration. Dubious that schools were institutions that endorsed such ideals, Hayes (2007, p. 146) relays comments about Einstein that "He remarked that education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school! He claimed that it was a miracle if children's curiosity survived their formal education, as it was driven out of them in the narrow pursuit of an imposed and prescribed curriculum." Einstein's scathing criticisms toward educational limitations are apparent. He felt that knowledge and logic provide a linear roadmap that enable people to sequentially proceed from one point to another. Ingenuity, on the other hand, supercedes knowledge by tapping into unforeseen territory and forging new ground that is ground-breaking and contributory (i.e., "Imagination is more important than knowledge"). Einstein believed in perseverance, or the dedication to an intellectual pursuit, which is difficult to do in educational environments that typically adhere to strict deadlines and promote timeliness order, which usurps the creative process that needs time, trial-and-error efforts, and boundless liberation.

One fairly simplistic epistemological implementation that teachers can employ into the classroom is the tradition of story-telling. Based on a seminar conducted for nursing students, Bunkers (2006) reflects on the power of sharing personal narratives. Stories serve as an epistemological device because they utilize a straightforward and collective approach in which people can impart knowledge based on their personal struggles and triumphs, as well as a way of communicating cultural and world-related knowledge (Campbell, 1988). Storylines that are familiar offer a sense of validation and solidarity toward the human condition, while unfamiliar plots can reveal mysteries that relate to human endeavors and relationships. Moreover, stories provide people with theoretical knowledge that can initiate the reversal of maladaptive attitudes and behaviors.

Conclusion

Epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, is an age-old concept that is sophisticated and multidimensional. "What is knowledge" might appear to be a rudimentary question that necessitates a straight-forward and simplistic response. However, as this paper demonstrates, knowledge as an ideology has been examined and appraised from a variety of great thinkers ranging from Plato to Freud, all of whom investigated this issue from different angles and have therefore generated differing, sometimes contradictory results. The implications of this article are quite expansive, and may differ drastically based on the individual background of the reader. One general inference surrounds the idea that knowledge is not concrete, nor is it stagnant, and thus should constantly be scrutinized based on new and innovative erudition, or cultural and historical norms that serve to expand its parameters. It would behoove educators, parents, and students to constantly dissect the theory of knowledge, and apply it to various contextual, individualized, and philosophical accounts in attempt toward obtaining its elusive existence.

Terms & Concepts

Aristotelian Epistemology: According to Aristotle, knowledge can be categorized into three dimensions, including theoretical, qualitative, and performative.

Epistemology: A branch of philosophy that concentrates on the theory of knowledge.

Equilibrium: According to Piaget, people strive to harmonize, or adapt to their environments through the process of equilibrium. People achieve equilibrium through the process of assimilation and accommodation.

Genetic Epistemology: A specific theory created by Piaget that focused on the study of knowledge in sequential stages.

Psychosexual Stages of Development: Freud created a controversial theory that delineated human development based on stages (e.g., oral, anal, phallic), each of which focused on a physiological part of the body. Parental involvement during each stage determines how a person progresses through each stage, and governs corresponding adult characteristics.

Reasoned True Belief: According to Plato, knowledge consists of three concepts: truth, belief, and evidence.

Bibliography

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Null, J. W. (2003). Education and knowledge, not "standards and accountability": A critique of reform rhetoric through the ideas of Dewey, Bagley, and Schwab. Educational Studies, 34 , 397-413. Retrieved December 15, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12280654&site=ehost-live

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Schermer, V. L. (1999). To know a mind: Oedipus, Freud, and epistemology. Psychoanalytic Studies, 1 , 191-211. Retrieved December 15, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6059913&site=ehost-live

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Suggested Reading

Feldman, R. (2002). Epistemology. USA: Prentice Hall.

Sosa, E. (2007). A virtue epistemology: Apt belief and reflective knowledge. USA: Oxford University Press.

Williams, M. (2001). Problems of knowledge: A critical introduction to epistemology. USA: Oxford University Press.