First Nations Folklore and Mythology
First Nations Folklore and Mythology encompasses the rich tapestry of narratives, traditions, and beliefs of the indigenous peoples of Canada, excluding the Inuit and Métis. With over 850,000 individuals across 634 recognized First Nations, the largest groups being the Cree and Ojibwe, these stories serve as vital conduits for cultural identity, community cohesion, and historical continuity. Traditional myths and folklore, passed down orally through generations, include legends, songs, dances, and various practices tied to nature and the environment. Common themes within these narratives often feature creation myths, transformative tales, and moral lessons, with significant figures such as the Raven, Wisakedjak, and Glooscap playing pivotal roles.
Storytelling is traditionally reserved for winter months, believed to preserve the sanctity of the tales and prevent misfortune. The myths often reflect a deep connection to the landscape, explaining the origins of natural features and species. Additionally, First Nations folklore has been influenced by the arrival of European settlers, leading to a blended cultural heritage that integrates both indigenous and European traditions. As an intangible cultural heritage, First Nations folklore continues to be preserved through art and various practices, highlighting its ongoing relevance and importance to contemporary indigenous identity.
First Nations Folklore and Mythology
First Nations are the indigenous peoples of Canada who are neither Inuit nor Métis (mixed ancestry people). In 2015 there were 634 recognized First Nations governments across Canada, over 850,000 people in total, of which nearly half resided in Ontario and British Columbia. The largest native groups are Cree and Ojibwe. Their traditional myths and folklore are passed down from generation to generation, like those of Inuit or Native American tribes. They represent not only the traditions from the past but also the culture's response to its environment, community, nature, and society, thus providing a link with the past and giving a sense of identity and continuity. First Nations folklore and mythology are an important cultural heritage—a wealth of knowledge and skills. This includes songs and dances; oral traditions such as legends, jokes, rhymes, proverbs, weather lore, and superstitions; festive events; knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; and skills such as preparation of food and traditional crafts.
Brief History
The term folklore, coined in 1846 by the British writer William Thomas, means customs of the old times; in the case of First Nations folklore and mythology, these customs also form the tenants of sacred rituals and beliefs. Storytelling was restricted to the long winter nights, as it was believed that narrating the old tales in other seasons would bring misfortune. The rituals that were tied to nature, seasons, hunting, or the harvest were practiced during the entire year. Myths and folklore contributed to the social cohesion of the First Nations communities, encouraging the sense of identity and responsibility. Many of the legends passed down by the elders are today classified by language families, themes, and genres.
Joseph Greenberg’s 1987 classification asserts that all North, Central, and South American language families other than Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind macro-family. The most recent study by Terrence Kaufman (1990) isolates fifty-four language families and sixty-four unclassified dialects within North, South, and Meso-America.
First Nations myths and folklore convey a communal sense of belonging, shared and religious experiences, behavioral models, and moral and practical lessons of earlier civilizations. They are an invaluable source of the historical, psychological, cultural, and societal truths and beliefs. First Nations myths and folklore are protected as an intangible cultural heritage and preserved through art and various surviving practices, which help safeguard and disseminate this heritage.
Overview
Surviving legends and myths often have common or similar themes. One of them is the creation myth that features the deity Raven. Although Raven did not create the Earth, he established the order of things and the laws of nature. Another common group of myths are myths of origin of nature and landscape. Landscape mythology is used in various totemic peoples to explain the origin of various occurrences in nature, such as shapes and names of mountains and rivers. Similar myths explained the origins of various animal and plant species, especially those tied to survival. Other underlying themes include myths of sacred rituals and objects, transformative and supernatural myths, and tales of overcoming hardship.
According to the Ojibwe oral history, seven great miigis (radiant beings) appeared to the early elders in the Waabanakiing (Land of Dawn, Eastern Land) in order to teach them the way of life. One of the miigis was too powerful, and his presence killed the people of the Waabanakiing; he therefore returned to the ocean and six remaining miigis stayed to teach. They established doodem (clans) for the peoples in the east, and each clan was symbolized by an animal, fish, or bird. The five original Anishinaabe doodem were: Wawaazisii (Bull), Baswenaazhi (Crane), Aan’aawenh (Pintail Duck), Nooke (Bear) and Moozoonsii (Little Moose). The seventh miigi, the one that did not stay, would have established the Thunderbird clan. The miigis then retreated to the ocean, and only appeared in dreams to relate prophecies and guidance. The Ojibwe people also had the teacher-guide Nanabozho, often appearing as the rabbit, who was one of four sons of the Spirit Father and a human mother. In his rabbit form, he is called Mishaabooz (Great Rabbit) or Chi-waabooz (Big Rabbit). This trickster deity is a shape-shifter and a co-creator of the world, inventor of fishing and hieroglyphs.
Popular myths among the Cree people were those of the wise Wisakedjak (Wisakechak). Created by the Great Spirit to be the teacher of humankind, he was the brother of the Wolf Mahihkan. He was able to punish or reward various creatures for their good deeds or wrongdoings.
A prominent character in the Wabanaki people’s myths is Glooscap, "the man who came from nothing." A giant of supernatural strength and power, he is also a teacher and a creator like Wisajedjak. Other characters include Witikos (monsters or bogeymen), Memekwesiw (river-dwelling people), Grandmother Fox, Mishipizhiw (Great Lynx), the Thunderbird Piyesiw, and others. These stories, even the most humorous ones, were considered to be sacred and were told only in wintertime. In some Cree communities, legends about animals were also forbidden during the summer. Folktales and other stories, such as legends about human heroes, monsters, and historical events, have been told at any time of year. Some First Nation families continue to follow this tradition.
The First Nations folklore has several points of origin, due to the arrival of various settler groups that came to the area from Europe. Each group brought their traditions and created new folklore, often blending Christian tradition with other regional, ethnic, or harvest rituals. This can also be seen in the music and dance in various Canadian provinces, which mixes traditions from all over Europe with that of the local folk. In that sense, although the cosmology of the First Nations myth remains vitally important, it is also blended with beliefs, traditions, and habits from the settlers, creating a multicultural folklore tradition.
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