Interactionism (sociology)
Interactionism in sociology is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the significance of daily social interactions in shaping society and human behavior. Emerging in the early twentieth century, this perspective focuses on how individuals interpret and respond to the actions of others, making it a form of microsociology. Interactionism encompasses three main subfields: phenomenology, symbolic interaction, and ethnomethodology. Symbolic interactionism, often considered the most prominent, analyzes how societal patterns arise from interpersonal exchanges that involve shared symbols, such as gestures and language, which carry subjective meanings shaped by cultural norms.
The theory posits that individuals develop their sense of self through these interactions, where labels assigned by society can influence personal identity and behavior. For instance, societal reactions to actions, like underage drinking, illustrate how cultural contexts affect perceptions of behavior. While interactionism provides valuable insights into individual agency and social construction, it has faced criticism for potentially downplaying the impact of larger social structures such as gender, race, or class. Critics argue that the focus on micro-level interactions may overlook broader societal influences. Nonetheless, proponents of interactionism recognize that individual actions and interpretations are foundational in understanding larger social dynamics.
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Interactionism (sociology)
Interactionism is a concept in sociology in which daily social interactions between people are seen as influencing society and human behavior as a whole. The theory evolved from the work of several noted sociologists in the early twentieth century and examines the way humans act based on how they interpret the actions of others. Interactionism is a broad term typically used to encompass three subgroups of study: phenomenology, symbolic interaction, and ethnomethodology. The theory of symbolic interaction is considered by some researchers to be one of the three main perspectives in sociology. Interactionism is a form of microsociology, the study of small groups and social units within the larger social sphere. It is the opposite of macrosociology, which examines large-scale populations and the structure of society in general.
Background
Sociology is the scientific study of human behavior, social relationships, and social institutions. While these elements were explored by philosophers throughout history, the idea of using science as a way to examine society was first proposed by French philosopher Auguste Comte in the nineteenth century. There are generally considered three fundamental perspectives, or theories, that govern sociology. The oldest is called functionalism and was based on the work of English philosopher Herbert Spencer. Inspired by Charles Darwin's concepts on evolution, Spencer believed society consisted of interconnected parts that acted together as a whole in much the same way as a living organism. Families, for example, were sources of social learning and nurturing, education was a vehicle to pass down cultural information through generations, and politics was a means of maintaining order. If one aspect of the social "body" experienced a problem, other aspects would suffer as well. The conflict perspective also viewed society as consisting of different parts of a whole, but in this theory, the parts were in competition with each other. The perspective, which originated in the writings of socialist philosopher Karl Marx, holds that society is constantly striving for wealth and power to control unequally distributed resources.
The third sociological perspective is called symbolic interactionism. Unlike the other main theories, this concept was an example of microsociology, an idea that viewed human behavior as being influenced on a smaller social level. Symbolic interactionism sees society as being molded by the symbols and cultural messages shared between individuals in day-to-day interactions. The idea was first touched upon by German sociologist Max Weber in the early twentieth century and further developed by American sociologist George Herbert Mead at the University of Chicago. The term itself was coined in 1969 by American sociologist Herbert Blumer.
Overview
While the blanket term interactionism is often used to describe the overall sociological concept, symbolic interactionism is considered the most prominent theory to evolve from it. Symbolic interactionism examines the patterns that develop in larger society based on the interactions between individuals or smaller social units. These interactions are based on common cultural symbols exchanged between people or groups. In this context, a symbol is something that stands for or represents something else within a particular culture. These can be gestures, words, actions, or objects that represent ideas, concepts, or emotions. The meanings attached to the symbols are subjective and based on cultural norms, or expectations individuals believe to be true.
In Germany, for example, beer has been a part of the culture for centuries and is celebrated at various festivals throughout the country. People begin drinking beer at age sixteen, and children routinely accompany their parents to events such as Munich's Oktoberfest. A sixteen-year-old hoisting a beer mug, therefore, would be seen in German culture as a normal occurrence. As long as the teen was well behaved and drank in moderation, the teen's parents and local police would have no cause for concern. In the United States, where the legal drinking age is twenty-one, a sixteen-year-old drinking a beer would be breaking the law and associated with delinquent social behavior. The teen may face parental discipline or arrest on charges of underage drinking.
Symbolic interactionism also suggests that individuals' sense of self is shaped by their interactions with others in the framework of society. People often label themselves in a particular manner based on their interactions with others. A woman who just had a child may take on the label of "mother" and assume a more nurturing demeanor based on interactions with her newborn and the supportive responses from her social circle. Conversely, a teenager arrested on underage drinking charges may be looked upon socially as a juvenile delinquent and be given the label of "criminal."
Other perspectives that fall under the umbrella of interactionism are the theories of phenomenology and ethnomethodology. Phenomenology is the concept that society exists because people perceive it as existing. In other words, people are not shaped by outside social forces, but are aware that society is a human construction and shape that world with their individual actions. A couple about to be married, for example, comes from two different social realities. When they are married and move in together, they reshape their individual lives into one married life, which becomes their overarching reality. Closely related to phenomenology is ethnomethodology, a theory that sees society as the by-product of everyday human existence. In this concept, society does not exist as a structured whole, but is the collective social perceptions of individuals as they perform their day-to-day routines.
Critics of the interactionist perspective assert that the theories ignore the impact of large-scale forces on society and often discount elements such as gender, race, or class-based discrimination. Critics also claim that the theories put too much emphasis on rational and conscious human behavior at the expense of irrational or subconscious actions. For example, the interactionist perspective of race and gender may not consider the role of gender discrimination or systemic racism. Similarly, when considering a social problem like smoking, interactionists may overlook the role of social media, films, television shows, and other mass media platforms that influence an individual’s perceptions of the behavior. Advocates of interactionism do not discount the effect of larger social forces on the whole of society but view their root causes as originating at the micro level.
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