Irish mythology

Irish mythology is a body of stories, legends, folklore, and oral traditions developed by the people of pre-Christian Ireland. Irish mythology has its roots in the mythology of the Celts, a collection of tribal groups that spread across Europe more than two thousand years ago. While Celtic mythology was nearly wiped out after the mainland tribes in Europe and parts of Britain were conquered by the Romans, it survived on the remote island of Ireland. For generations, Irish mythology was passed down strictly by word of mouth, until Christian monks began chronicling the stories in the Middle Ages. Modern scholars have divided the mythology into four periods, or cycles: the mythological cycle, the Ulster cycle, the Fenian cycle, and the historical cycle. These cycles range from tales of the mythological origins of the island’s first inhabitants to the exploits of legendary Irish kings.

Background

Ireland is an island nation located in the North Atlantic Ocean, just west of the larger island of Britain. Because of its location, the island remained covered in ice from the last ice age longer than other parts of southern Europe. As a result, the first humans did not arrive there until about 7000 BCE. These first inhabitants were nomadic hunter-gatherers who eventually transitioned to a settled agriculture-based society.

The Celts arrived in Ireland from the mainland about 500 to 300 BCE, bringing with them a new iron-forging technology. The Celts were a group of tribal peoples who originated in central Europe and were tied together by their use of iron and religious and cultural similarities. By about 300 BCE, the Celts had spread across most of Europe, occupying lands from modern-day Turkey into France, Spain, Britain, and Ireland.

In the second century BCE, the Celts came into conflict with the Romans, who were beginning to expand their territory in Europe. In 57 BCE, the Roman general Julius Caesar had defeated the Celtic armies of Gaul, and about a century later, Rome had also conquered much of the island of Britain. The conquered Celts were assimilated by Roman society, and their culture, language, and religion were effectively destroyed. However, in areas where the Roman invaders did not reach, such as northern Britain and Ireland, the Celts lived on, developing into the Gaelic culture.

Christian missionaries arrived in Ireland sometime in the fifth century CE, introducing a new faith and a new emphasis on literacy. While previously the island’s culture was based on oral tradition, Irish monks began writing down local histories and tales. The Romans had sought to discredit and erase Celtic mythology, but the monks recorded the stories as they were told, albeit with some Christianized elements. The fusion of Celtic and Christian elements created a distinct cultural identity that thrived for centuries.

In the twelfth century, parts of Ireland fell under control of England, touching off almost eight hundred years of conflict between the two. Britain succeeded in conquering Ireland in the sixteenth century and began a process of colonization by seizing land, converting the population to the Anglican Church, and attempting to stamp out Irish culture. The majority of Irish, particularly Catholics who did not convert to the Protestant Anglican Church, faced discrimination and occasionally violence at the hands of British colonizers. The Irish staged numerous rebellions against British rule before finally gaining independence for most of the nation in 1922.

Overview

Irish mythology is a direct descendant of the mythology of the Celts. Much of what survives in modern times was first recorded about the eleventh century by Christian monks. Modern scholars typically classify the periods of Irish mythology into chronological cycles, with each cycle focusing on a different group of deities, cultural heroes, or rulers. Although the cycles correspond to real historical timelines, they contain few true historical references. The cycles predominantly deal with pre-Christian Irish mythology and often contain overlapping elements.

Mythological Cycle

The mythological cycle includes tales of the first inhabitants of Ireland. According to the stories, the island was first settled by the people of Cessair, the granddaughter of the biblical Noah. They were followed by several other invading groups, including the monstrous Fomorians and the Fir Bolg. About 1900 BCE, a magical group of god-like beings known as the Tuatha Dé Danann arrived in Ireland from four great northern cities. The Tuatha Dé Dannan, whose name means “people of the Goddess Danu,” were said to have landed on the coast wrapped in a dense mist. The newcomers were red- or blonde-haired and skilled in music and the arts. They battled and defeated the Fir Bolg, but allowed them to remain on their lands. The Tuatha Dé Dannan used their powers to greatly benefit the people, introducing four magical objects, or talismans, to the island. These were the Stone of Fal, which screamed when a true Irish king stood upon it; the Magic Sword of Nuadha, which only dealt killing blows; the sling-shot of the Sun God Lugh, which always hit its mark; and the Cauldron of Daghda, which produced an endless amount of food.

The Tuatha Dé Dannan were said to have ruled Ireland until about 1700 BCE when they were conquered by the Milesians, the mythical ancestors of the Celts. At this point, the Tuatha Dé Dannan disappeared, retreating to a magical hidden realm called Tír na nÓg, or the Otherworld. There, they became known as the Aos Sí, a race of fairy folk who can enter the real world through gateways found in certain rivers, lakes, earthen mounds, and mushroom circles known as fairy rings. The myth also states that before the Tuatha Dé Dannan left, the goddess Eriu asked the Milesians to name the island after her. They honored that request, calling it Eire, which is translated as Ireland in English.

Because it grew out of the polytheistic Celtic tradition, Irish mythology contains a host of different gods and goddesses. The namesake of the Tuatha Dé Dannan, Danu, was considered a mother goddess and represented both Ireland and nature. Daghda was the god of life and the chief male deity. Morrigan was the goddess of war, Lir was the god of the seas, and the warrior and master craftsman Lugh was also the god of the sun.

Over many centuries, Christian influences and efforts by the English to devalue Irish culture removed the powerful divine aspects of the Tuatha Dé Dannan. As the Aos Sí, the ancient gods became the inspiration for the mythical fairy beings of Irish folklore. Among the best known are the changeling, a supernatural child left in place of a real baby that was stolen by the fairies. The banshee is a female spirit whose wailing is said to foretell a coming death. The mischievous leprechaun is a child-sized fairy with a habit of making shoes and hoarding pots of gold. In fact, some experts theorize that the god Lugh later became reimagined as “little stooping Lugh,” or Lugh-chromain in Gaelic. That name may later have evolved into leprechaun in English.

Ulster Cycle

The Ulster cycle concerns events in the northern region of Ulster, in what is modern-day Northern Ireland. The cycle was said to have taken place in the first century CE, about the time of Jesus Christ. It focuses on a group of warriors called the Red Branch who defended King Conchobhar Mac Nessa of Ulster. The most famous of these warriors was Cú Chulainn, also known as the Hound of Ulster. Cú Chulainn was the son of Lugh and was said to enter such a ferocious state in battle that he would kill both friend and foe alike if they got too close. Cú Chulainn’s renown was such that when he was eventually killed in battle, a spear was put in his hand and his body propped up against a rock. The sight was said to be enough to scare off his enemies.

The most famous story of the Ulster cycle is the epic Táin Bó Cúailnge, the “Cattle Raid of Cooley.” The tale begins with the ruthless Queen Medb of Connacht and her husband, King Ailill, arguing over who owned more wealth. The two were comparatively even, except that Ailill owned a prize bull, and Medb did not. One of the most famous bulls in Ireland was owned by an Ulster man named Dáire mac Fiachna. Medb tried to buy the prized brown bull from him, but he refused. Enraged, Medb sent an army of warriors to Ulster to seize the bull. While the fighting men of Ulster were incapacitated by an ancient curse, only a young Cú Chulainn stood in the way of Medb’s army and her prize. Because he was a descendant of the Tuatha Dé Dannan, Cú Chulainn was untouched by the curse. He was such a great warrior that he killed hundreds of Medb’s warriors each day. The queen tried to negotiate with Cú Chulainn, who agreed to stop killing her men if she would send just one warrior a day to face him. Cú Chulainn defeated each challenger easily until Medb sent his childhood friend, Ferdiad, against him. Ferdiad was nearly Cú Chulainn’s equal in battle, and although the hero of Ulster begged his friend not to fight, he refused to back down. The two fought for four days, until Cú Chulainn was finally able to kill Ferdiad with a magical spear.

While Cú Chulainn was exhausted after the battle, Medb managed to steal the prized bull. She took it back to Connacht where it fought and killed King Ailill’s champion bull, scattering its remains across Ireland. The bull rampaged across the region, killing many men, until it died from its rage.

Fenian Cycle

The Fenian cycle recounts the adventures of legendary warrior Fionn Mac Cumhail, whose name has often been changed in English to Finn McCool. Fionn was the leader of the Fianna, a group of warriors tasked with guarding the high king of Ireland. According to the myth, Fionn’s father was a warrior of the Fianna, but was brutally murdered. His pregnant wife fled for her safety and gave birth to Fionn in secret. As a young man, Fionn was sent off to be educated under the druid poet, Finnegas. The poet had long searched for the legendary Salmon of Knowledge, a fish that survived the great flood of Noah and had acquired all the world’s knowledge. One day, Finnegas finally caught the fish and instructed Fionn to cook it for him; however, he warned the young man not to eat any of the fish. While cooking the salmon, Fionn accidentally burned his hand on its flesh and instinctively sucked his finger to ease the pain. In this way, Fionn received all the knowledge of the world.

Fionn later went on to join the high court of Ireland’s king by passing three rigorous tests. Each year during the October festival of Samhain, the king’s halls were attacked by a fire-breathing goblin named Aillén Mac Midgna, who first lulled the king’s warriors to sleep with his harp. Fionn battled Aillén by leaning on the point of his spear to stay awake and was ultimately able to kill the creature. The king recognized his bravery by appointing him to be leader of the Fianna. The Fenian cycle, which was supposedly written by Fionn’s son, Oisín, was identified as occurring in the third century CE.

Historical Cycle

Despite its name, the historical cycle contains predominantly mythological elements, although with some real historical figures mixed in. It supposedly recounts the deeds of the Irish kings as told by their court poets. Many of the stories were purely mythological, such as the tale of King Labraid Loingsech, who was said to have been born with the ears of a horse. As a boy, his father and grandfather had been murdered and the young Labraid was forced to eat a piece of their hearts by the man who killed them. Years later, Labraid got revenge by inviting the man and his forces to a meeting at a specially built fort made of iron. Labraid chained the men inside and set the fort on fire, roasting them alive.

Another popular myth from this cycle is the Buile Shuibhne, or the “Frenzy of Sweeny.” In this tale, Shuibhne mac Colmain, a northern Irish king, gets into a dispute with a saint and attacks him twice. The saint curses Shuibhne, who is driven mad and roams the countryside naked. Shuibhne is eventually killed at the point of a spear by a farmer who falsely suspects the madman of having an affair with his wife.

Some figures in the cycle were real kings of Ireland. One of the more famous was Brian Boru, who ruled the island from about 1002 to 1014. He first subjugated rival Irish kingdoms and demanded tribute from each. Then he defeated the Viking forces that had invaded Dublin, briefly unifying the nation under his rule and becoming the last high king of Ireland.

In addition to the Viking invasions, Irish history contains many episodes where foreign powers invaded its territory. In addition to cultural mythology, Irish folklore is also laden with legends of resistance against these military incursions. This legacy began with the ninth-century Viking raids on Ireland. Other foreign invaders would later include Romans and Normans. In recent centuries, the most notable resistance movements occurred with the Irish fight for independence from the British Empire. A signature event was the Easter Uprising in 1916, where Irish republicans rebelled against British rule. This occurred as the British Army was heavily engaged in World War I. Most of the fighting transpired in Dublin over six days until the uprising was suppressed. Three years later saw the initiation of the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921). This insurrection gave rise to the notoriety of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). This was an armed force of Irish citizens, many with experience in the British military, who took up arms against occupying English forces. Similar to the Easter Uprising, the British subdued this effort. The IRA would continue to emerge through subsequent decades in continuous efforts for its cause of independence.

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