John Locke and Education

This article examines why John Locke is considered one of the most influential philosophers in reshaping society from a system of monarchy and aristocracy to the modern concept of democracy and liberal capitalism. The article starts by giving a brief biography of Locke, including a concise description of the areas and issues that engaged Locke during his life. Next, it examines Locke's basic philosophy on reason, knowledge and critical thinking, and shows the relationship of this philosophy to his other seminal works. The paper briefly explains Locke's influence on Jefferson and the founding documents of America, as well as his continuing influence on American democracy. Finally, this article demonstrates the close correlation between Locke's thoughts on education and the way American education and pedagogy is perceived and practiced today.

Keywords: Act/Belief Distinction; Blank Slate; Critical Thinking; Divine Right; Epistemology; Learner-Centered Education; Liberal Capitalism; Logical Fallacy; Rationalism; Social Sciences; Tabula Rasa

Overview

America's most important founding father, Thomas Jefferson, asserted that the three "greatest men that have ever lived" were Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, and John Locke. Newton and Bacon were both central to developing modern science, but why did Jefferson believe John Locke was so important? Jefferson wrote that these three men "laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences," (Faulkner, 2008, p. 26). Though the term "moral science" seems quite odd today, Jefferson is referring to what we would call the "social sciences" such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, political science, etc., though these fields of knowledge had not yet emerged as distinct disciplines in Jefferson's day. Now scholars and historians can clearly see the powerful influence of Locke's seminal works on all of these fields, and Jefferson seems to have astutely evaluated the historical importance of the three individuals who led the way to a new age of physical and social sciences.

The fact that Jefferson lists Locke as one of the most important men in human history also indicates that Locke highly influenced Jefferson as an intellectual, statesman, scientist, philosopher, U.S. President, and framer of America's most important document, the U.S. Constitution. Indeed, when we examine the works of John Locke, his importance on the development of human civilization in general becomes quite apparent. Locke contributed in many ways to the furtherance of modern society; he set the foundations for modern democracy, significantly contributed to many fields of knowledge, and also affected the way we perceive and practice education today. He modernized the meaning and method of education such that his basic principles are still the foundation of modern American education. To understand Locke's role in human history, and his influence on contemporary Western society, we must first briefly examine his life, the social institutions of his time, and the basic theories and tenets he forwarded. Once we consider these aspects, then it will become clear that Locke was, metaphorically, an intellectual bridge crossing from a previous period of human history to a new age of enlightenment and reason.

The Life & Times of John Locke

In 1632, Locke was born in Somerset, England. He came from a prosperous family, and his father was a lawyer who owned a good deal of land. Through his father's influential contacts, Locke was accepted to one of the top English public schools of England, Westminster School, where he was an excellent student. He received an Oxford University scholarship, where he earned a bachelor's degree in 1656, and in 1659 completed a master's degree. Locke stayed at Oxford, where he began teaching Greek in 1660, and later became a Rhetoric teacher. But Locke was not merely a teacher. He had a very broad interest in knowledge; for example, he was fascinated with developments in medicine, including the discovery that blood circulated throughout the human body. He decided to study medicine in his spare time, and eventually became a medical doctor, writing many treatises on the practice of medicine ("Fifty Major Economists," 2003, p. 7). Locke was quite diverse in his intellectual pursuits, and he became a leading proponent on one side or another of many of the most important issues of his day. Locke also made important contributions in the theory of knowledge with his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and he contributed significantly to theories on education through his essay Some Thoughts on Education.

One of Locke's fundamental ideas was that humans are born with minds that are a "blank slate" (also known as "tabula rasa"). This means human development is highly influenced by environment, and that people fill their "blank slates" through life experiences that are reflected upon to gain knowledge (Henson, 2003, p. 7). Gintis (2006) notes that this theory influenced the founders of modern sociology and anthropology, making Locke the original source of these new fields of knowledge (p. 377). The "tabula rasa" concept also relates to Locke's theories on human reasoning. Locke believed all humans are capable of rationality and the ability to reason, and this led to his belief that individuals can and should collectively control the government. As Huyler writes, Locke proposed that civil society should be grounded in "a social contract signed by free and equal men rather than in a patriarchal theory that conferred divine-right grace on any sitting monarch" (1997, ¶ 8).

Although the idea of each citizen voting and having power over government seems quite normal to us today, it is important to consider that during Locke's day, such a sociopolitical system did not exist. Many problems arose from societies being ruled by kings who believed God had bestowed upon them the divine right to rule over others, and religious institutions had a tendency to support this system by issuing that "divine right" to the king — as long as he supported the Church. As Huyler points out, "English-men feared and hoped to thwart … the prospect of a monarch religiously responsive to the authority of a foreign Pope and puffed up by a pretentious divine-right doctrine." This system "threatened liberty in the political and the private sense" and it caused "intolerance, persecution, and conflict, as well as a dire disturbance to property and commercial freedom" (Huyler, 1997, ¶ 36). In the historical and social context in which Locke developed his theories, the notion that citizens should control government seemed quite radical in his day. Through strong reasoning, Locke demonstrated the need and justification for "innate indefeasible, individual rights which limit the competence of the community and stand as bars to prevent interference with the liberty and property of private persons" (Huyler, 1997, ¶ 9).

Thus, Thomas Jefferson had good reason to consider Locke one of the most important figures in human history, since Locke's philosophical treatises pushed feudalism and aristocracy aside to make intellectual space for individualism and the approaching age of commerce and industrialism. As Faulkner points out, "Bacon is best known for explaining the method of mastering nature; Locke, for explaining the political science of liberty" (2008, p. 28).

Further Insights

Reason, Democracy & Education

Esperanza (2006) points out the philosophical transition, within Locke's mind, that caused his development to a more modern viewpoint. Esperanza writes that in his earlier writings, Locke concentrates more on theology and presents a viewpoint that seems more typical of seventeenth century thought. But then there is a psychological and philosophical shift wherein Locke begins developing a "strong inclination to empirical theories", and "began to show a deeper appreciation of the power of rational faculties and the role of sense-experience." Esperanza points out that this is why most scholars place Locke in the rationalist school of thought (Esperanza, 2006, p. 14). Locke also states his firm belief that learning how to think, or exercising our ability to reason, is the most important thing any of us can achieve in our lives. In his essay Some Thoughts Concerning Education, Locke writes, "For when all is done, this [the ability to reason well], as the highest and most important faculty of our minds, deserves the greatest care and attention in cultivating it: the right improvement, and exercise of our reason being the highest perfection that a man can attain to in this life" (1693, Part VIII, Section 122).

Locke's belief in human reason is a key to the rest of his writing because this is the underlying system of thought that allows him to envision a differently organized society, and a new method of education as well. Locke's system of reasoning is what led him to propagate a modern democratic system based on individual rights, including human rights and property rights that complement and support today's global system of liberal capitalism. For Locke, reason is "the discursive faculty of the mind, which advances from things known to things unknown and argues from one thing to another in a definite and fixed order of propositions. It is this reason by means of which "mankind arrives at the knowledge of natural law" (Esperanza, 2006, p. 53). Locke places sense perception at the center of this system of reasoning. For Locke, sense perception, which we can also interpret to mean experience, leads the way to knowledge. Esperanza observes that sense experience and reason, as the foundation of all knowledge, represents Locke's "most salient epistemological doctrine" (p. 54).

Opinion

However, Foley (1999) also brings up an important point about understanding Locke's epistemology. Foley argues that Locke's main concern is "not with how we acquire knowledge but rather with how we regulate opinion." Foley then observes that Locke defines knowledge such that it "requires certainty and, thus, is extremely scanty". On most topics or issues, all humans actually have are opinions, which is why Foley thinks Locke's epistemological philosophy is mostly concerned with how to best form one's own opinions (Foley, 1999, p. 1). Thus, what are in effect critical thinking skills are at the center of Locke's thoughts on reason, knowledge, and rationalism. Citing Wolsterstorff, Foley outlines the fundamental principles that Locke espouses for best forming one's opinion. When examining these three principles, it seems clear that Locke is essentially giving advice on how to develop critical thinking skills:

• Principle of evidence: Base opinion on evidence, where evidence consists of what one knows.
• Principle of appraisal: Examine the evidence one has collected to determine its force, that is, appraise the probability of the proposition in question on that evidence.
• Principle of proportionality: Adopt a level of confidence in the proposition that is proportioned to its probability on one's evidence (Foley, 1999, p. 2).

Additionally, Locke warns us about the most common mistakes we make in forming our opinions; his advice on pitfalls in forming opinion is even more clearly related to the development of critical thinking skills:

• False propositions are inculcated in us from youth as self-evident.
• We become attached to familiar explanations and do not even consider alternatives.
• Our opinions are motivated or influenced by our emotions rather than being the products of a disinterested concern for truth.
• We give allegiance to authority (Foley, 1999, p. 6).

Today we would call the above "opinion-forming" mistakes "logical fallacies," and these fallacies are a basic part of any course that teaches students how to develop critical thinking skills. Considering the attention Locke gives to avoiding shorted circuits in the critical thinking process, and the attention he gives to explaining the proper process, Locke does seem most concerned with helping others develop strong critical thinking skills.

Of course, beneath such a system of critical thinking is the premise that we are all capable of thinking independently and can arrive at our own sound opinion on any issue. Foley gives us a direct quote from Locke that clearly states that assumption: "Every man carries about him a touchstone if he will make use of it, to distinguish substantial gold from superficial glittering, truth from appearances … [T]his touchstone … is natural reason" (cited in Foley, 1999, p. 5). This quote inherently carries the foundation of modern democracy and liberal capitalism, as it focuses on the concept that every citizen possesses natural reason, can make rational decisions, and vote accordingly. Jefferson crafted the U.S. Constitution upon Locke's basic principle, that a government could be created that is "of, for, and by the people."

Locke's Influence on American Democracy

When reading the U.S. Constitution, there seems a strong prevalence of reason at its foundation. It starts out with some basic propositions and moves forward from those propositions. Watson expresses this idea when he quotes a famous line from the second paragraph of the Declaration of Independence: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal." As Watson observes, all literate citizens can read that line, use their own sense of reason and come to the rational conclusion that they agree with the premise. Even if society is constructed in opposition to that proposition, it nevertheless seems reasonable and fair that no individual should be born socially superior to another, and no individual should be uniquely chosen by God to rule over citizens without their consent. This is the foundation of modern society, and as Watson points out, "all liberal democratic forms of government recognize, if not explicitly then at least implicitly, the fundamental fact of human equality. Not to recognize such equality is to argue for another form of government, a non-liberal-democratic form" (Watson, 2006, p. 34). Thus, Locke's philosophy strongly influenced the Declaration of Independence and Jefferson's ideas on government.

There are many other ways that Locke's ideas have infuenced and still influence America today. For example, Powers notes that Locke's ideas are still quite relevant in various legal decisions and precedences. A good example of this is Powers' observation that Locke is the underlying source of the act/belief distinction that Jefferson handed down to U.S. courts (Powers, 2007, p. 73). The act/belief distinction is the idea that, in considering religious freedom, that freedom should only be limited if a religious act is against the good of society in general, and there is a reasonable civic law against some action in general. To oversimplify but get to the heart of this concept, we can see that human sacrifice as an act of religious freedom is nevertheless murder according to law, and will be punished as such. Locke expresses this concept in his writing, which Jefferson passed on to the U.S. judicial system. As Powers notes, "The rule Locke proposes is the same as that of the U.S. Supreme Court: 'those things that are prejudicial to the commonweal of a people in their ordinary use, and are therefore forbidden by laws, those things ought not to be permitted to churches in their sacred rites' (Powers, 2007, p. 78). However, there are many situations where the legal line may blur, and it becomes quite uncertain as to whether religious freedoms should be restricted or not. This is why Powers argues that courts today should examine Locke's original principles on this subject when informing and forming their legal opinions and decisions.

Discourse

Locke's Influence on Education

Locke wrote his ideas on education several centuries ago, but he still has a profound impact on how we practice education today in America. Henson argues that Locke is the original source of what we call today "experience-based education" and the contemporary concept of "experiential education." Henson made an analysis of learner-centered education literature, and came up with six basic principles that the literature outlines as the defining characteristics of leaner-centered education:

• Education should be experience based
• Each individual learner's own unique qualities and disposition should be considered when planning experiences,
• The learner's perceptions should shape the curriculum,
• Learner's curiosity should be fed and nurtured,
• Learning is best when it involves the emotions, and
• The learning environment should be free from fear (Henson, 2003, p. 10).

Locke's essay, Some Thoughts on Education, powerfully and quite persuasively argues the case for adopting the above principles when educating students. Seventeenth century education had an entirely different approach, and that approach continued for a few more centuries, but eventually educators shifted their educational approach such that it matches the principles Locke outlines in his essay. In other words, the traditional approach of striking a student's hand with a ruler, for fumbling a rote memory line of text, has fallen out of use. If one reads Locke's essay on education, it becomes apparent that he is considering education from the point of view of the student rather than that of the teacher, which is the central principle of modern "learner-centered education". There are many examples in Locke's essay where we can see that leaner-centered approach underlying his advice to teachers.

The first proposition, that learning should be experience based, connects to a new way of perceiving and understanding education. Locke transformed learning itself from a more authoritarian system concentrated on memorizing and knowing information, to a more democratic system that concentrated on thinking about things and learning to reason. Locke places the ability to reason at the heart of his education philosophy:

The next two principles that Henson outlines — that teachers should consider the unique disposition of each student, and that teachers should try to shape curricula according to the students' perceptions — are also important in Locke's educational principles. Locke writes that, "He therefore that is about children should well study their natures and aptitudes, and see by often trials what turn they easily take, and what becomes them" (Locke, 1693, Part IV, Section 66, ¶ 3). As for allowing students to shape curricula, Locke has this principle in mind when he advises that teachers try to make the lesson and learning material

The next principle, that of engaging the student's curiosity, can also be traced back to the educational principles of Locke. Locke writes that curiosity is "but an appetite for knowledge" and for that reason curiosity should be encouraged in students. Not only does Locke advise teachers to take advantage of the student's curiosity, but he also warns teachers to never discourage student questions, and never laugh at any question a student asks, but to always answer every question, and explain things well. Locke views curiosity as "the great instrument nature has provided to remove that ignorance they [students] were born with; and which, without this busy inquisitiveness, will make them dull and useless creatures (Locke, 1693, Part VIII, Section 118, ¶ 1-2). Locke's views on good teaching style are related to this idea. Locke believes that it is possible to actually make learning into fun, and he says as much in his essay:

Henson's last two principles, that learning is best when it involves the emotions, and that the learning environment should be free from fear, also source back to Locke's essay. Locke writes that the teacher should be sensitive to what mood, emotion and state of mind a student is in before beginning a lesson, and that "a good disposition should be talk'd into them, before they be set upon any thing." Locke argues that if a teacher gets the student into a good frame of mind before teaching, then the student will learn and retain much more. Locke writes that, by getting the student into the right mood for learning, "a child will learn three times as much … as he will with double the time and pains when he goes awkwardly or is dragg'd unwillingly to it." In the very next sentence of this same passage, Locke makes a comparison of his theory on education to the current practice of education in his day, and his discussion on that point covers the last principle, that of eliminating an environment of fear:

Conclusion

Although the Locke's language is a bit archaic (he wrote his ideas over three hundred years ago), there is nevertheless a strong sense of modernity in his thoughts. His modern way of thinking is why he is arguably the broadest and strongest intellectual and philosophical bridge crossing from a seventeenth century system of authoritarian institutions over to the modern democratic systems of government and education that we use today. By serving as a bridge, Locke also significantly contributed to the establishment of the United States, by helping Jefferson build a framework founded on the concept of individualism. Locke would most likely be pleased were he to see how modern democracies function, and how today's public education has embraced his principles for creating independent critical thinkers who become responsible and intelligent citizens in control of their governments and other social institutions.

Terms & Concepts

Act/Belief Distinction: A legal concept that distinguishes between the freedom to believe and the freedom to act. Freedom to believe is absolute, but the freedom to act based on belief is not. For example, this issue arose when the government prohibited polygamy. The U.S. Supreme Court made a sharp distinction between the freedom to believe and the freedom to act.

Blank Slate or Tabula Rasa: The concept that humans are born with minds that are like a "blank slate", wherein experience and contemplation fills in the blank slate. John Locke defined blank slate as a young mind not yet affected by experience.

Critical Thinking: The intellectually disciplined process of consciously analyzing and synthesizing information from observation, experience, reflection, or reasoning, in order to form an opinion or take action. This system of thought is based on specific intellectual values such as fairness, accuracy, consistency, relevance, evidence, and logical reasoning.

Divine Right: The doctrine that the right of a king to rule comes from God, and that kings are not answerable to the subjects of the kingdom but to God only. This doctrine originated in medieval Europe between the Church and secular rulers as to the origin of political power.

Epistemology: A branch of philosophy that is concerned with theories on knowledge. It is an analysis of the nature of knowledge as well as the limitations of knowledge. Epistemology tries to answer questions such as "What is knowledge?" and "How is knowledge acquired?"

Learner-Centered Education: A style and theory of teaching that puts the student at the center of the educational process. Leaner-Centered Education starts by examining and understanding the educational contexts from which a student comes. In learner-centered education, effective teaching is defined as teaching so as to make the student actively engaged and involved in the learning process.

Liberal Capitalism: An economic system wherein individuals and their rights to property and trade are promoted and protected, while government interference in the economic market is minimized.

Logical Fallacy: A mistake in the accepted and standard process of correct reasoning, or it may be an argument that uses bad reasoning. Fallacies were first pointed out and studied by Greek philosophers, but other philosophers such as John Locke, John Stuart Mill, and Jeremy Bentham also developed critical thinking theories that included pointing out logical fallacies.

Rationalism: A philosophical view that asserts reason is the primary source and test of knowledge. Rationalism is often placed in opposition to empiricism, the doctrine that all knowledge on matters of fact ultimately derives from sense experience. However, both philosophies are important for use in scientific inquiry and critical thinking, and John Locke seems to have espoused and used both types of inquiry.

Social Sciences: Scholarly or scientific disciplines that deal with the study of human society and of individual relationships in and to society. Examples of social sciences are sociology, psychology, anthropology, economics, political science, and history.

Bibliography

Esperanza, J. (2006). John Locke and the natural law: Yesterday and today: a critical analysis. Excerpta et Dissertationibus in Philosophia; , 9-109. Retrieved May 30, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24893980&site=ehost-live

Faulkner, R. (2008). Spreading progress: Jefferson's mix of science and liberty. Good Society Journal; 17: 26-32. Retrieved June 1, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=34365492&site=ehost-live

Foley, R. (1999). Locke and the crisis of postmodern epistemology. Midwest Studies in Philosophy; 23, 1-20. Retrieved June 2, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10454758&site=ehost-live

Gintis, H. (2006). Moral sense and material interests. Social Research; 73: 377-404. Retrieved June 3, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=22046104&site=ehost-live

Gregoriou, Z., & Papastephanou, M. (2013). The utopianism of John Locke's natural learning. Ethics & Education, 8, 18-30. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88291011&site=ehost-live

Henson, K., (2003). Foundations for learner-centered education: A knowledge base. Education; 124: 5-16. Retrieved May 29, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=11046646&site=ehost-live

Huyler, J. (1997) Was Locke a liberal? Independent Review; 1: 523-543. Retrieved June 1, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9710064405&site=ehost-live

John Locke (1632-1704). (1999). Fifty Major Economists; 7-10. Retrieved June 1, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=17020615&site=ehost-live

Locke, J. (1693). Some thoughts concerning education. Modern History Sourcebook. Retrieved May 28, 2009 from Fordham University. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1693locke-education.html

McNulty, L. (2013). Lockean social epistemology. Journal of Philosophy Of Education, 47, 524-536. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92672957&site=ehost-live

Platz, D., & Arellano, J. (2011). Time tested early childhood theories and practices. Education, 132, 54-63. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=66538794&site=ehost-live

Powers, T. (2007) The act/belief doctrine and the limits of Lockean religious liberty. Perspectives on Political Science; 36: 73-83. Retrieved May 28, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=25893328&site=ehost-live

Watson, B. (2006). Creed & culture in the American founding. Intercollegiate Review; 41: 32-39. Retrieved June 3, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=22713924&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Bowden, G. (2008). Piety and property: Locke and the development of American protestantism. Christian Scholar's Review; 37, 273-287. Retrieved May 30, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31422494&site=ehost-live

Carrig, J. (2001). Liberal impediments to liberal education: The assent to Locke. Review of Politics; 63, 41-76. Retrieved May 30, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=4187974&site=ehost-live

Crane, J. (2003). Locke's theory of classification. British Journal for the History of Philosophy; 11, 249-260. Retrieved June 2, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s8h&AN=10849325&site=ehost-live

Rudderman, R. and Godwin, K. (2000). Liberalism and parental control of education. Review of Politics; 62, 503-530. Retrieved May 30, 2009 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s8h&AN=3495066&site=ehost-live