Logos (philosophy)
Logos is an ancient Greek philosophical concept that signifies a divine intelligence or cosmic order governing the universe. Translated as "word," it also encompasses meanings like "reason," "thought," and "principle." Emerging around the sixth century BCE, logos represents a shift from mythological explanations of the cosmos to a rational understanding, beginning with the philosopher Heraclitus who viewed it as the fundamental law of the universe. Prominent later philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle expanded the concept, relating it to human reason and the principles of logic.
In Stoicism, logos is seen as the divine reason that orders the universe and is intrinsic to the human soul. This philosophical idea was further developed by the Jewish thinker Philo of Alexandria, who interpreted logos as the ultimate divine reason, influencing early Christian theology. In the Christian context, especially in the Gospel of John, logos is identified with Jesus Christ, representing the Word of God made flesh and serving as a bridge between the divine and humanity. The discourse surrounding logos remains significant in philosophical and theological debates today, exploring its implications for understanding the nature of the divine and human morality.
On this Page
Subject Terms
Logos (philosophy)
Logos is an ancient Greek concept referring to a divine intelligence, or order, in the universe. The term often is translated to mean "word" but can also mean "reason," "thought," or "principal." The idea of an underlying cosmic order is found in other belief systems, taking the form of dao in Chinese philosophy and dharma in Hinduism and Buddhism. In Greek thought, the concept was believed to have first developed about the sixth century BCE. It represented both an eternal divine truth and the source of human reason. The Greeks saw it as a rational explanation of the cosmos rather than one that relied on legend and myth. In early Christian theology, logos represented the figure of Jesus Christ, who was considered God's way of speaking with humanity. Other philosophical traditions interpreted logos as the source of law and morality or as a way to understand the "mind of God."
Background
In Chinese philosophy, the eternal spiritual principle of the universe is known as dao, meaning "way," "road," or "path." Dao is an abstract concept that is believed to guide the universe along a path of harmony and order. To the Egyptians, the world was founded on the concept of Maat, the heavenly source of balance, justice, and order. The Egyptians personified the idea in the form of a goddess of the same name. Egyptian belief also viewed the god Atum as a primal divine force that embodied the essence of human consciousness.
In ancient Hindu texts, the idea of an ultimate cosmic truth was called rta. This concept developed into the notion of dharma in Hindu and Buddhist thought. In Hinduism, dharma is considered the divine foundation of religious and moral law. To Buddhists, dharma is the eternal universal truth that guides all of human existence.
Overview
The first-known reference to the concept of logos was by the Greek philosopher Heraclitus, who was born about 535 BCE. Heraclitus described logos as the fundamental law of the cosmos—the divine principle that brought order and form to all things. The seemingly random and constant change that occurs in nature was just part of the divine and transcendent principle of logos.
The development of the concept by Heraclitus was a major step in moving human thought toward a rational explanation of the cosmos. Previous worldviews had assigned mastery of the universe to mythological gods, goddesses, and heroes. In this idea, known as mythos, storms were caused by angry deities, the sun was driven through the sky by a heavenly chariot, and the seasons changed according to the emotions of a goddess. Logos gave these natural events an underlying cause that, while still divine, was based on rational thought.
By the fourth century BCE, noted Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle had adapted the concept to reference the divine quality that was the foundation of human reason. Plato considered logos to be the soul of existence fashioned by a divine creator. Aristotle used the concept to describe rules that govern rational thought, an idea he referred to as "logic"—a word that is derived from the word logos. To Aristotle, rhetorical arguments that relied on logic and reason as a means of persuasion evoked the idea of logos. A form of argument that appealed to the emotions was known as pathos; one that appealed to a person's character was called ethos.
Stoicism, a school of Greek philosophy that developed about 300 BCE, held that logos was the main source of reason responsible for order in the universe. The Stoic philosophers believed that logos was the divine force present in the human soul. They believed that it made life possible and that one day everything in life would return to that divine force. To achieve happiness and meaning in life, the Stoics believed a person's thought needed to be focused on this divine truth, or the will of God. They also believed logos was the source of morality and human law.
The concept of logos was further developed by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, who lived from about 20 BCE to 50 CE. Philo was well-versed in Greek philosophy and used its methods to study the Hebrew Bible, or Old Testament. He explained logos as the ultimate divine reason, the eternal form that gave shape to the universe and the direct evidence of God. Human reason and rational thought, he believed, were an extension of the divine. The search for philosophical and scientific truth was an attempt by humans to understand the mind of God. Philo's philosophical approach to the Old Testament was discounted by Jewish scholars of the era but found acceptance among the early Christians. His teachings and interpretation of logos are believed to have greatly influenced Christianity and many of the authors of the New Testament.
One of those New Testament books—the Gospel of John—takes the earlier concepts of logos and transforms them into the idea of the divine becoming human. As originally translated, the opening verse of the Gospel read, "In the beginning was the Logos (Word), and the Logos was with God, and the Logos was God." The author then refers to Jesus Christ as the Logos, meaning the Word of God made flesh. In this context, logos was a way for the divine essence of God to communicate with his creation. Jesus, in his role as the Son of God, was the human incarnation of the divine truth.
Modern philosophers and theologians have debated the concept of logos, questioning its relation to understanding the true nature of God. Some believe the idea is purely philosophical and should not be used in theological discussions. Others hold that the fundamental Christian idea of Jesus as the son of God can only be understood through logos.
Bibliography
"Concerning the Logos." Oregon State University, 29 Dec. 1996, web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~funkk/Personal/logos.html. Accessed 12 Feb. 2018.
Graham, Daniel W. "Heraclitus (fl. c. 500 B.C.E.)." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, www.iep.utm.edu/heraclit/. Accessed 12 Feb. 2018.
Hillar, Marian. "Philo of Alexandria (c. 20 B.C.E.–40 C.E.)." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, www.iep.utm.edu/philo/. Accessed 12 Feb. 2018.
Lebreton, Jules. "The Logos." Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 9, Robert Appleton Company, 1910, www.newadvent.org/cathen/09328a.htm. Accessed 12 Feb. 2018.
"Logos." PBS, www.pbs.org/faithandreason/theogloss/logos-body.html. Accessed 12 Feb. 2018.
Marlowe, Michael D. "In the Beginning Was the λόγος ..." Bible Researcher, www.bible-researcher.com/logos.html. Accessed 12 Feb. 2018.
Rescher, Nicholas. Cosmos and Logos: Studies in Greek Philosophy. Ontos Verlag, 2005.
Tallis, Raymond. "On Logos." Philosophy Now, 2016, philosophynow.org/issues/117/On‗Logos. Accessed 12 Feb. 2018.