Manichaeanism
Manichaeanism is a historical religious movement founded by the prophet Mani in the 3rd century CE in Mesopotamia. Mani, who claimed to have received divine revelations from his celestial twin, introduced a dualistic worldview centered on the struggle between light and darkness. He taught that a Great God exists in the realm of light, while a malevolent force, Ahriman, resides in darkness. Central to Manichaean belief is the idea that salvation comes through gnosis, or revealed knowledge, rather than traditional water baptism.
The movement's followers were divided into two groups: the elite electi, who practiced strict asceticism, and the lay auditors, who engaged in agriculture to support the community. Manichaean texts, originally composed in Syriac and Middle Persian, include a wealth of manuscripts discovered in regions such as Turkestan, indicating the movement's extensive geographical reach across Palestine, Egypt, and beyond. Despite facing persecution, including a significant edict against them in 297 CE, Manichaeanism thrived for centuries and influenced later dualistic sects in Europe and the Middle East. Notably, the philosopher Saint Augustine was once a follower before converting to Christianity and writing against the movement.
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Manichaeanism
Related civilizations: Persia, Mesopotamia, India.
Date: c. 230-800 c.e.
Locale: Beginning in Mesopotamia, this religious movement spread to north Africa in the west and to China in the east.
Manichaeanism
Mani (c. 216-276 c.e.) was born in Mesopotamia to parents who belonged to the Persian Arsacids. He claimed that he received his first revelation from his celestial twin at the age of twelve. According to the Cologne Mani Codex (third century c.e.; English translation, 1979), Mani’s family belonged to the Jewish-Christian Elchasaite sect.
Upon his second revelation at the age of twenty-four, Mani rejected the water baptisms of this sect and preached instead salvation by gnosis (revealed knowledge). Mani proclaimed his gospel in Mesopotamia, Persia, and India and enjoyed the patronage of Shāpūr I (r. 240-272 c.e.) but then was killed by Bahrām I.
Mani taught that there were two independent principles, light and darkness. In the first epoch, the Great God (Zurvan) lived apart in the realm of light, while Ahriman lived in the realm of darkness. In the second epoch, Primal Man (Ohrmizd) was defeated by the prince of darkness. An envoy, the Living Spirit, liberated Primal Man, who made the physical universe from the bodies of the sons of darkness. The powers of darkness created Adam and Eve and sought to retain in their descendants the particles of light. Christ was sent to enlighten people with gnosis and to liberate the particles of light that they unknowingly possess.
Manichaeans were divided into the elite electi and the laymen, known as auditores, or “hearers.” The elect abstained from marriage and from eating meat. The auditors harvested fruits and vegetables, which contained particles of light. When the elect ate the produce, they would liberate the light by burping so that they could ascend into the Milky Way.
The earliest canonical texts were written in Syriac and Middle Persian. Later Manichaean texts include fourth and fifth century c.e. Coptic manuscripts such as the Kephalaia (The Kephalaia of the Teacher, 1995). A large corpus of Manichaean manuscripts have been found at Turfan in Turkestan (northwest China), dating to the eighth and ninth centuries. These are in Middle Persian, Sogdian, Chinese, and Uighur.
In Mani’s lifetime, his teachings reached Palestine and Egypt. Despite the harsh edict against Mani and his followers in 297 c.e. by the emperor Diocletian, who labeled them subversive, the movement continued to flourish. Saint Augustine was for nine years (373-382 c.e.) a Manichaean auditor. After his dramatic conversion to Christianity, Saint Augustine wrote influential anti-Manichaean refutations.
Later dualistic movements such as the Paulicians in Armenia (seventh to twelfth centuries), the Bogomils in Serbia (eleventh to twelfth centuries), and the Albigenses (or Cathari) in northern Italy and southern France (twelfth to thirteenth centuries) were labeled “Manichaean” for their similar views.
Bibliography
Klimkeit, Hans J. Gnosis on the Silk Road. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993.
Lieu, S. N. C. Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1992.
Rudolph, Kurt. Gnosis. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1987.
Runciman, Steven. The Medieval Manichee. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1955.