Psalms

Composition

The book of Psalms is a rarity in the Hebrew Bible (Talmud) and the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. It is one of only two biblical books that explicitly self-identifies as being a compiled work with multiple original authors. The other such work is the book of Proverbs.

In the Judeo-Christian tradition, a psalm is a religious poem presented in verse form and intended to be recited in song. King David, the iconic Israelite ruler, is identified as the author of between seventy-three and eighty of the 150 psalms included in modern versions of the book of Psalms. A biblical character known as Asaph is credited as the author of twelve of the remaining psalms, though scholars continue to debate whether the psalms of Asaph were written by the scriptural figure of the same name or by a group of religious vocalists who were known as the Asaphites. Ten or eleven psalms are attributed to the “sons of Korah” (the Korahites), with Korah being a character in the biblical book of Numbers. In that book, he rebelled against Moses and his leadership. The Ezrahite figures of Heman and Ethan wrote two of the psalms, while King David’s son Solomon is credited as the author of one or two of the psalms. In some cases, experts differ over their interpretations of the original source works, resulting in minor discrepancies over the precise number of psalms attributed to a particular author. Scholars cannot determine the authors of the remaining psalms, as their respective texts make no reference to any particular composer.

The book of Psalms evolved over a period of centuries. Experts date its oldest verses to about the time of Moses, who is believed to have lived sometime between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries BCE. Its youngest verses are thought to have been created during the early part of the period of Jewish history known as the Babylonian exile (ca. 597– ca. 537 BCE).

Summary

Each of the 150 individual works in the book of Psalms has its own individual chapter, which makes it the longest book in the Talmud/Old Testament as measured by the number of chapters. The book of Psalms also occupies the middle of the Talmud/Old Testament, and contains both its shortest and its longest chapters.

Traditionally, the 150 canonical psalms have been grouped into five distinct sections, or “books,” with the five divisions covering psalms 1–41, 42–72, 73–89, 90–106, and 107–150. The final psalm found in each of the first four sections of the book functions as a concluding recitation known as a doxology, while the last psalm of the last section acts as a doxology for the work as a whole. Biblical scholars have long speculated about the reason for the division of Psalms into five shorter sections, with one popular explanation noting that the structure reflects the arrangement of the Torah, a foundational work of Jewish scripture comprised of the first five books of the Talmud/Old Testament. (In Christianity, the Torah is known as the Pentateuch.) According to this viewpoint, the structured arrangement of Psalms indicates it may have evolved into its present form as the result of a lengthy history of use in liturgical services.

Commentators also note that the individual chapters of the book can also be grouped in other ways, such as by subject or according to the poetic forms used in the work. The majority of the psalms in the work can be classified into four major poetic forms, including the hymn, the lament, the song of confidence, and the song of thanksgiving. Hymns, also known as psalms of praise, are song-form prayers with fixed rhythms and specific musical characteristics. Laments are sorrowful petitions for God’s intervention against catastrophic, destructive, and painful events afflicting the Israelite people. Songs of confidence express faith and trust in God, while songs of thanksgiving praise God for delivering an individual or a group of people from tribulation. A fifth grouping noted by some commentators, the “royal psalms,” explore the roles played by the Israelite kings in the development and maturation of the Jewish faith tradition.

The individual psalms express a full range of emotions, including jubilant and optimistic to sorrowful and even accusatory. Some of the psalms are intended for use in specific situations, such as during pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Certain formal characteristics of the psalms indicate the high-profile role they played in ancient displays of public worship. For instance, the ancient Hebrew term selah appears seventy-one times in the book of Psalms and is widely believed to be a musical annotation added to certain psalms when they became fixtures in worship services. Another ancient Hebrew term, maskil, appears in thirteen of the 150 psalms. Its meaning is uncertain and has been the subject of significant scholarly debate. Some observers believe it to be another example of musical notation while others think it has literary origins and indicates the proper way to perform or recite the psalms in which it appears.

Themes

In the most general sense, the central theme of the book of Psalms is the rightful worship of God. The authors of the psalms were uniform in their deference to and love and respect for God, even at their most pained and lamenting. Mercy and trust also function as two crucially important components of this central theme, with God being shown time and again to be capable of great acts of forgiveness and compassion. At the same time, he also invites and demands his followers’ full and implicit trust.

Some analytical interpretations of the book of Psalms note unifying thematic elements that define each of its five distinct sections, positioning these features as reflections of the five books of the Torah/Pentateuch. Adherents of this viewpoint liken Psalms’ first section, consisting of psalms 1–41, to the biblical book of Genesis, which is the first book of the Torah/Pentateuch. Like Genesis, the verses in the first section of Psalms describe God’s blessing of humankind, humanity’s fall from grace, and its path to redemption.

Section two, consisting of psalms 42–72, draws analogies to Exodus, the second book of the Torah/Pentateuch. Like Exodus, these verses focus heavily on lamentations of calamity and societal and spiritual devastation, which ultimately prompt God to act as rescuer.

Section three, containing psalms 73–89, focuses mainly on the features and characteristics of suitable places of worship. This draws analogies to the third book of the Torah/Pentateuch, the book of Leviticus, which describes the specifications and construction of the original tabernacle as it existed in the time of Moses.

Section four, consisting of psalms 90–106, contains numerous verses that describe the glories of God’s kingdom and contrast it with earthly nations. This creates parallels between it and the book of Numbers, which documents the emerging nation of Israel’s evolving relationships with other regional powers and peoples.

The fifth and final section of Psalms, comprised of psalms 107–150, is oriented toward praise of God and the acceptance of God’s word and God’s laws. Similarly, the final book of the Torah/Pentateuch, the book of Deuteronomy, reiterates God’s word and God’s laws as they were handed down through Moses.

Other interpretations of Psalms invite a more esoteric and conceptual analysis, considering the respective themes of each of its five sections as explorations of the different ways in which God manifests to human beings. From this perspective, the work’s five sections position God as beside (section one), before (section two), around (section three), above (section four), and among (section five) human beings, respectively.

The book of Psalms occupies an important place in the Judeo-Christian spiritual tradition. Psalms had a profound impact on the development of early Jewish religious rites and rituals, and were commonly used to guide members of the faith community through specific situations in their lives. During the period of Jewish history that began after the Babylonian exile ended and spanned approximately four and a half centuries, the book of Psalms became the official hymnbook of Jerusalem. Commentators note that its function in formalized services likely played a major role in the evolution of the book’s structure. In Christianity, Psalms was a central feature of early church services. Psalms were chanted or set to music and sung during these nascent Christian religious observances, and the New Testament of the Christian Bible also emphasizes Jesus Christ’s love of the psalms. According to the Gospel of Luke, Jesus spent his dying breath quoting Psalm 31: “Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit.”

Bibliography

Robertson, O. Palmer. The Flow of the Psalms: Discovering Their Structure and Theology. P&R Publishing, 2015.

Sander, Paul J. Alternate Delimitation in the Hebrew and Greek Psalters: A Theological Analysis. Mohr Siebeck, 2020.

Scroggie, W. Graham. A Guide to the Psalms. Kregel Publications, 1995.

Swindoll, Chuck. “Psalms.” Insight for Living Ministries, 2022, insight.org/resources/bible/the-wisdom-books/psalms. Accessed 25 April 2022.

Welge, Colin, et. al. Sing a New Song: A Keyword Analysis of the Psalms. Azusa Pacific Honors College, 2015.

Zavada, Jack. “Introduction to the Book of Psalms.” Learn Religions, 25 Feb. 2019, www.learnreligions.com/book-of-psalms-701125. Accessed 25 Apr. 2022.