Religion and Mythology in Ancient Greece

Summary: The civilization of Ancient Greece refers to a period that began during the Greek Dark Ages (c. 1200-800 BCE) and lasted until the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BCE. The ancient Greeks were known for their mythology, the myths and legends of their twelve major gods and heroes that formed one aspect of their religion. Though not all religious principles were universal among all Greek peoples, many of their myths and beliefs were commonly shared. Prior to the Hellenistic Age, one of the four main periods of ancient Greece--about the fourth century BCE--no recorded collection of Greek myths existed that could be compared to the religious writings of other civilizations, such as the Vedas or the Bible. Instead, the religion and mythology of Greece survived through the oral tradition, such as mothers teaching the stories to their children.

Background & History

Archaeological evidence from caves near the modern city of Delphi suggests that as early as 4000 BCE, the ancient inhabitants of Greece were worshipping a mother goddess, Gaia, who personified Earth. A female deity was certainly worshipped in Minoan culture, around 2000 BCE. The male god Apollo, the Sun god, replaced this cult around the eighth century BCE. When the Mycenaeans, who were of Indo-European background, invaded the Greek mainland around 2000 BCE, they brought not only advanced weapons and chariots with horses, but also their own myths and gods, such as Zeus, the god of sky and thunder, and the king of all other Greek gods. Discovered tablets reveal a familiar list of the ancient Greek deities.

Mythology  

Much of our knowledge of pre-classical Greek mythology comes from the writings of Homer and Hesiod, among other lesser-known poets. Homer, who may have been a grouping of poets rather than a single individual, offers a great deal of information pertaining to Greek mythology in his epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey. Hesiod's Theogony, particularly his creation story, is another pertinent source that describes the origins of Greek deities. Other ancient texts that provide insight into ancient Greek mythology include the Homeric Hymns, a collection of Greek hymns that celebrate gods and goddesses.

Like many religions, the religion of ancient Greece included a creation myth, or a story detailing the beginning of life. Gaia, the Earth goddess, is considered the primary Greek goddess and the personification of earth; according to many early sources, she laid the great egg that contained the sky, mountains, sea, and other elements of the universe. Gaia, with the sky god Uranus, also created a race of Titans, who were giants of great strength. Their descendants were the gods of Mount Olympus.

Gods/Pantheon  

The Greek pantheon (set of gods) is famously depicted in friezes (architectural ornamentation) encircling the top of the Parthenon, the ancient temple to the Greek goddess Athena that is located in Athens on the Acropolis. (The Parthenon is named in honor of Athena Parthenos, or Athena the virgin, the city's patron goddess.) The gods were believed to have jurisdiction over different aspects of life. The ancient Greeks made sacrifices to them in hopes of gaining favor or in thanks for blessings received.

Zeus is the king of the twelve primary gods of Mount Olympus, which, at 10,000 feet, is the highest of the mountains of Greece. Because of its stature, it was believed to be the home of the gods, known as the Twelve Olympians. Zeus represents the sky and his symbol is a thunderbolt. He is the ultimate dispenser of justice, however arbitrary it sometimes appears. He is married to the goddess Hera, who is the goddess of marriage and one of Zeus's sisters. The other Twelve Olympians are Poseidon, Demeter, Hestia, Ares, Hermes, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Athena, Apollo, and Artemis.

Poseidon is the Greek god of the seas. He is a brother to Zeus and also associated with horses. (The god Hades is another brother of Zeus, and he represents the underworld, which bears his name; he is sometimes listed as one of the Twelve Olympians.) Demeter, the earth goddess, is a sister to Zeus. She represents the fourth element of the universe, but is less important than the male gods. Hestia, the goddess of the hearth and home, is also another sister of Zeus. Few myths about her exist, and she mirrors the Greek ideal of a woman who speaks infrequently and tends the household. Along with Zeus and Hera, these gods represent the first generation of the Twelve Olympians.

In the second generation of this mythological family are several gods who come from Zeus's line. Ares, the Greek god of war and bloodshed, is the son of Zeus and Hera. Hermes, another son of Zeus, is the trickster god and serves as his father's messenger. He also guides the deceased to Hades. The god of the crafts, the blacksmith god, was Hephaestus, the son of Zeus and Hera. Because he tried to protect his mother from his father, Hephaestus was thrown out of heaven and thus lamed. Aphrodite, his sister, is also his wife, who had an affair with Ares, the war god.

Born from Zeus's aching head when Hephaestus cut it open, Athena is the goddess of wisdom and warfare and the patron of Athens. She brought olive trees to Athens and aided Odysseus in his attempt to return home after the war. The owl is her bird. Apollo, the sun god, and Artemis, goddess of the hunt, are twins. Their mother was Leto, who coupled with Zeus when both took the shape of quails. Associated with the oracle at Delphi, Apollo is also noted for prophecy. The Greeks believed that he pulled the chariot of the sun across the sky. Artemis was the patron of the city of Ephesus.

These twelve are aided by a host of lesser gods, including Dionysus, god of wine and merriment; Eros, god of desire and lust; and Asclepius, god of healing and medicine. Myths also relate stories of ancient heroes such as Heracles (Hercules in Roman), Odysseus, and Paris, the king of legendary Troy.

Rituals  

Religious rituals provided rhythms for life at every age in ancient Greece. At birth, babies were carried around the hearth to seek the protection of Hestia. Children as young as three participated in the various religious festivals, and in some places, boys underwent initiation rites. In Athens, for example, young men were sent to guard the frontier, and then returned to Athens to swear an oath of loyalty. Rituals were also part of marriage and funerary ceremonies. When a family member died, for instance, relatives placed copper coins on the eyes or under the tongue of the deceased. These coins were regarded as payment for Charon, who ferried souls across the River Styx to the underworld.

One ancient ritual involved the act of scapegoating. Rather than using a literal goat, as ancient Jewish law provided, the Greeks designated a person to symbolically bear the burdens of the city. Chosen in advance, this person, or scapegoat, was well-treated for a year before the ceremony. Following a feast at the year's conclusion, this individual, accompanied by flute music, was led outside the city boundary, accompanied by music, and pelted with rocks and sticks. That person was left to die or to begin a new life elsewhere.

At Eleusis, a city near Athens, a cult developed around the goddess Demeter and her daughter Persephone (who became the queen of the underworld). The so-called Mysteries of Eleusis, which took place annually in autumn, were believed to hold the human race together. They celebrated the birth of Brimos (Strong One) to Persephone in the underworld. The Mysteries were unusual in that they allowed any Greek-speaking woman or man, whether slave or free, to be initiated into the cult. Most cults, otherwise, were single-sex and most of them excluded slaves.

Holidays  

Religious holidays and practices typically involved processions, dancing, and singing, as well as athletic competitions. Feasting generally followed sacrifices, and was often one of the few occasions in which common people consumed meat. With so many gods and goddesses, as well as heroes and demigods, religious holidays occurred frequently, giving a structure to the year. In some cases, they marked time periods of longer duration. For example, the Olympic Games provided five days of competition in honor of Zeus every four years. Before the games began, a sacrifice of oxen was offered. The games began with a chariot race, and only men, generally nude, competed in the competitions. In times of war, truces were declared so that athletes and spectators could safely travel before and after the games. The Ancient Olympic Games lasted for more than a millennium, and were believed to have been ended in 393 CE by the Roman emperor Theodosius.

Multiple festivals in Athens were dedicated to Dionysus, god of theatre and of wine. The Great Dionysia was an annual three-day celebration. The works of famous Greek dramatists such as Aristophanes (c. 446–386 BCE) and Euripides (c. 480–406 BCE) were originally written for this festival. At Pyanopsia and Thargelia, two of the festivals for the god Apollo, boys sang and begged for treats while they carried wool-decorated olive tree branches on which fruit had been hung. Girls and women were noted as singers and dancers at the all-night festival known as Pannychis (or Pannychides).

Women were especially connected to the goddesses Demeter and her daughter, Persephone, who were both associated with fertility. Three festivals, known as Halao (or Halo), Skira, and Thesmophoria, coincided with agricultural work done by men. The latter was an exclusively female celebration that lasted for three days, with the first day reserved for travel and assembling. The second was a fast day, while the third was given to feasting and celebrating. Through their rituals, the women hoped to ensure a good harvest.

Religious Leaders  

Each god or goddess had priests or priestesses chosen by the community who attended to their various shrines and oversaw sacrifices. Because Greek religion did not overly concern itself with belief systems or moral conduct--indeed, the gods often acted in an immoral manner--the function of religious leaders was not to preach or enforce codes of conduct. Instead, they accepted the sacrifices, which included not only animals, but also votive gifts such as statues or pottery figures representing body parts in need of healing. These were placed in the temple sanctuary, known as the treasury, which was considered a sacred and safe place.

People traveled to oracles, such as Pythia, the famous Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, to seek advice on matters such as war and personal affairs. Prior to asking a question of the Delphic oracle, the supplicant sprinkled a goat with cold water. If the animal shivered, Apollo was deemed ready to answer. The goat was then offered as a sacrifice. The Pythia, a priestess sitting on a three-legged stool before a golden image of Apollo, gave the answer, which was sometimes ambiguous. When King Croesus of Lydia asked advice on waging war against Persia, the oracle said a great empire would be destroyed. Croesus attacked, not realizing it would be his empire that fell.

Cultural & Historical Impact

In the preface to his 1822 drama Hellas, the Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote, "We are all Greeks--our laws, our literature, our religion, our arts have their root in Greece." This statement reflects the opinion of many artists and intellectuals, who continue to value the contributions of Ancient Greece to the world.

The Role of Greek Mythology in the Roman World  

The Romans adapted and renamed the Greek pantheon--they established their own scheme of the twelve major gods (Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Ceres, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan, Venus, Minerva, Apollo, Diana, and Vesta)--and Roman frescoes, mosaics, and sculptures pay homage to the original Greek myths. Archaeologists have even uncovered terracotta figures of the Greek gods Athena and Heracles in Rome from the late sixth century BCE. The Roman poet Quintas Ennius (239–169 BCE) may have been the first to equate Roman gods with their Greek counterparts.

Some of the Greek gods and goddesses were not only renamed, but repositioned in importance. While Hestia was not well-represented in myth, as the Roman goddess Vesta, she was the center of the cult of the Vestal Virgins. The Romans gave Mercury, the Greek messenger Hermes, who linked opposites, the additional role of god of business and trade.

Four major Roman writers took on the task of re-imagining the gods of the Greeks. Titus Maccius Plautus, who was active around 200 BCE, wrote comedies based on Greek myths. The poet Gaius Valerius Catullus, who lived during the first century BCE, combined Greek myths in his poems. Publius Vergilius Maro, also known as Virgil, and who lived during the end of the Roman Republic in the first century BCE, also relied on Greek myths. He set one of his works, Eclogues (or Bucolics), in Arcadia, which is a pastoral environment far from Rome. In addition, Publius Ovidius Naso's retellings of a key Greek myth became a key text for subsequent European understanding of Greek myth.

How Greek Mythology Affected the Arts  

Artists, musicians, writers, and filmmakers have all relied on and reworked myths from ancient Greece. During the European Renaissance, between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries, artists used Greek myths as both subject matter and inspiration in their paintings and sculptures, a trend that still continues. One of the most famous visual representations of myth is Sandro Botticelli's Birth of Venus, which depicts the goddess arriving from the sea on a shell. Other Renaissance figures such as Titian, Bernini, and Rembrandt incorporated mythological figures into their art.

Greek tales and myths have been dramatized in modern operas, and have even influenced the work of William Shakespeare, who wrote the poem "Venus and Adonis," and twentieth-century writer James Joyce, who penned the novel Ulysses. Some Greek plays, such as Sophocles' drama Antigone, have been reworked for modern audiences. Recently, Greek myths have appeared prominently in films, including Jason and the Argonauts (1963), Disney's animated Hercules (1997), and the epic movie Troy (2004).

Architecture owes a debt to the temples and shrines built for the Greek gods and goddesses. Architectural styles that were predominantly influenced by Greek religious architecture include neoclassicism, which looked to the Greek columns and pediments for many public buildings; the Federalist style, often used in New England; and Greek revival architecture, prevalent from about 1780 until 1850.

How Greek Mythology Affected the Sciences  

The pioneer of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, linked Greek mythology with modern-day science when he described the Oedipus complex. This complex involves the idea that a child unconsciously or subconsciously develops sexual feelings for the parent that is the opposite sex, a theory which set off a still-remaining controversy. The complex is named after the mythological Oedipus, who killed his father and married his own mother.

For many centuries, the Greek understanding of human biology also prevailed. Greek playwright Aeschylus presents the trial of Orestes, who killed his mother, Clytemnestra. The judge, Apollo, pardons Orestes because the father is the only true parent, while a mother is merely a "vessel" for the seed implanted in her. Until modern times, the contribution of a woman's genes in making a baby was understood largely in this manner.

Interesting Facts

• The first Olympic Games were believed to have been held in connection with a festival to Zeus in Olympia, in western Greece. They were one part of the pan-Hellenic, or all-Greek, games. One Greek historian figured that the first Olympic Games occurred in 776 BCE, which corresponds with the beginning of classical Greek history.
• Epidaurus, located near Athens, is home to a Greek amphitheatre that is nearly perfectly preserved. These early theatres were often built into hillsides, improving the acoustics. Additionally, the use of masks not only identified characters, but also projected the actors' voices.
• Lord Elgin of Great Britain removed some of the marble carvings from the Parthenon. They are now housed in London's British Museum, though Greece has asked for their return.
• Popular cultural media such as Xena: Warrior Princess and The Matrix film series, while not direct retellings, rely on characters from the Greek myths.
• Nineteenth-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche relied on the Greek gods Apollo and Dionysus to develop some of his ideas about life.
• Although neoclassical styles of architecture relied heavily on white marble, archaeologists have discovered that the temples were originally brightly painted.
• Historians in ancient Greece compiled a list of the Seven Wonders of the (Ancient) World. Among them were the statue of Zeus that Phidias sculpted in the fifth century BCE and the temple of Artemis in Ephesus.

Bibliography

Buxton, Richard. The Complete World of Greek Mythology. London, England: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 2004.

• With more than 300 illustrations, including photographs, maps, index, and charts, this lavish book is a great place to begin.

Camp, John and Elizabeth Fisher. The World of the Ancient Greeks. London, England: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 2002.

• Scattered in this beautifully illustrated work, which has a good index, is information about both religion and mythology.

Hamilton, Edith. Mythology. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1969.

• This is considered a classic text for myths, with Hamilton's retellings grouped by theme.

http://www.didaskalia.net. Accessed August 2009.

• Associated with London's King's College, this site is an online journal and a resource for studying current productions of ancient Greek and Roman drama.

http://www.greekmyth.org. Accessed August 2009.

• This web site offers links to reliable sources on myths, along with links to museums and to full-text reference tools.

Wilkinson, Philip, and Neil Philip. Mythology. London, England: Dorling Kindersley Limited, 2007.

• Sixty pages within this larger work are devoted to Greek and Roman myths, with many plot synopses, along with photographs of historic places and artifacts.