Religion and Sexuality

Sexuality is defined as the way that an individual perceives themselves as a sexual being as expressed through sexual attitudes and desires. The basic nature of sexual desire and the forms in which that desire is considered normal or deviant have been debated throughout history (Tolman & Diamond, 2001). Human sexuality is socially constructed, and sexual desires are embedded in particular sociological and biological contexts (Tolman & Diamond, 2001) which are, in turn, influenced by an individual's upbringing and exposure to familial or religious interactions. Beliefs and attitudes about sexuality are not innate but acquired as a person grows and matures. Factors that influence sexuality include age, gender, cultural background, and historical epochs (Tolman & Diamond, 2001). Religion plays a large role in shaping attitudes about sexuality, as some religions prescribe acceptable sexual behavior. Many find that they are not able to accept such religious doctrine. Religious doctrine often resists change, and some religions, like Catholicism, have changed very little despite the enormous changes that people have experienced in their lives. This essay examines the intersection of sexuality and religion and the resultant attitudes adopted by different religions. This essay also discusses how sexuality and religion became linked prior to Christianity and beyond. The sociological aspects of sexuality are examined, including acceptance of different definitions of sexuality, religiosity, and sexual guilt. Finally, this essay examines the changing attitudes toward sexuality in the modern Catholic, Jewish, and Islamic faiths.

Keywords Evangelical; Human Sexuality; Religious Institutions; Secularization; Sexual Expression

Sex, Gender & Sexuality > Religion & Sexuality

Overview

Sexual relations were never free of religious or economic regulations, but as the complexity of our culture increased, social conventions began to place restrictions on sexuality (Weber, 1922). Human sexuality can be defined as the way that a person views themselves as a sexual being through sexual preferences and actions. Scholarly research about male and female sexuality has focused on two aspects of influence: biological and socio/cultural/political (Tolman & Diamond, 2001). According to sociologists Deb Tolman and Lisa Diamond, "neither a purely biological or purely sociocultural approach can encompass the complexity of sexual desire" (2001).

• The essentialist theory focuses on biology as the major factor in determining male and female sexuality differences. While biology is the overriding influence in determining sexuality, the essentialist theory acknowledges that social and historical influences also play a role, but a secondary one.
• The social constructionist theory attributes gender differences in sexuality to the cultural and psychosocial processes that act upon individuals and prescribe appropriate male and female sexual feelings and behaviors. Tolman and Diamond state, "our entire experience of sexuality can be viewed as a context and culture-specific story that we come to live… [but] the sociocultural forces that shape our subjective experience of sexuality are largely invisible to us" (2001).

This essay investigates the role that different religions have played in shaping human sexuality within social and historical contexts.

Christianity & Sexual Practice

Sexual Abstinence & Self-Control

Sociologist Gail Hawkes describes herself as a sociologist of sexuality who looks at history as a way of translating complexities into our modern lives. In her essay "The Problem of Pleasure and the Making of Sexual Sin in Early Christianity," Hawkes reviews some of the influences that early Christianity has contributed to our socially constructed ideas about the sexual body. According to Hawkes, early Christianity focused on human sexual pleasure as "warranting special attention, but the values attached to human's sexual pleasure [were] negative" (Hawkes, 2007).

Max Weber, a noted nineteenth century sociologist, wrote widely about the social influences of religion on different aspects of society. Weber's "Sociology of Religion" included chapters related to human sexuality and the role of religion in its influence. Weber suggests that Christianity exhibits an "anti-erotic religiosity." Hostility to sexuality was manifest in the pursuit of chastity. Abstinence was a highly regarded and extraordinary type of behavior which could be used for the "magical coercion of God" (Weber, 1922). Priestly celibacy was encouraged so that those holding church offices (clergy) would not lag behind the "supremely chaste" monks (Weber, 1922).

Sexual abstinence was seen as a central and indispensable means of salvation and was achieved through contemplative withdrawal from the world. Sexuality constituted the most powerful temptation (which linked humans with animal nature). The temptation of the body required constant vigilance, an emphasis on alertness, and self-control.

Appealing to the Laity

Sexual abstinence and self-control were the two principles that were espoused by the Christian Church as the most certain path to righteous salvation. While these principles were practiced by clergy and monks, influencing the general population about sexuality was a more daunting task. Hawkes investigated the pre-Christian and early Christian attitudes toward human sexuality with a focus on how to "manage the problem of the body" (Hawkes, 2007). In every sense, the body represented a danger to chastity; people need to "explicitly recognize the perils" associated with loss of control over the body. Women's bodies were of particular concern, as women were seen as lacking in self-control and, therefore, posed a significant threat if they were to experience sexual pleasure (Hawkes, 2007). The theme concerning women and their lack of self-control over their sexuality is a common one in many religions and will be discussed in more detail later in this essay.

Selling the idea of complete chastity to the general population was challenging for a couple of obvious reasons.

• First, sexual intercourse was necessary for procreation and continuance of humanity.
• Second, people who had sex knew that it was "overwhelmingly enjoyable" (Hawkes, 2007).

The Christian faith was effective in further raising anxiety levels by preaching the sex associated with pleasure was "bad" (immoral) sex.

Marriage

The institution of marriage was one way that religions could place parameters around sexuality by defining marriage as a religious sacrament. The role of marriage, according to Weber, was to eliminate all free sexual relationships; legitimization of marriage was a way to encourage monogamy which was the "hallmark of the Christian community" (Weber, 1922). Legally regulated marriage itself was regarded, not for its erotic value, but as an economic institution for the production and rearing of children. While many espoused a "direct religious obligation to beget children, the Judaic and Islamic faiths were also able to acknowledge that (procreation aside): "Sexual drivers were absolutely irresistible for the average person, marriage offered a legally regulated channel of sexuality" (Weber, 1922).

Public Shame: Sex as Sin

A growing Christian population posed challenges about how best to manage sexuality on a large scale; the answer proved to be more of the same control. Penance for sins, especially those of a sexual nature became part of the religious doctrine and provided a healthy dose of public shame. Later, private confessions took the place of public penance and served as a means to both absolve one of past sins and monitor future ones. Penitentials were handbooks that included an exhaustive and detailed list of sins and their appropriate penance. The Penitentials covered all the original sins with over half the questions concerned with sexual behavior. "The detailed questions relating to how, with whom and how often one had sex were in effect training the sexual body" (Hawkes, 2007, p. 11). Throughout, the texts focused on distinguishing between moral and immoral sex; they contained as much detail as was acceptable to effectively control and prescribe what was acceptable. Ironically, the Penitentials were so detailed, that church officials realized that they were essentially giving people an erotic education (Hawkes, 2007). Centuries of examining and distinguishing between sexual practices helped to establish "internal boundaries of shame" while firmly establishing the association of sex with sin (Weber, 2007).

Sexuality across the Religious Spectrum

"Despite the widespread belief that hostility toward sexuality is a special view of Christianity, it must be emphasized that no distinctive religion of salvation has in principle any other view" (Weber, 1922). We will now look at how other religions view the theme of human sexuality. Sexual expression often seems at odds with religious practice, because many people think of sex as pleasurable, and this is often counter to religious teaching. Much religion is "pleasure phobic," according to Daniel Maguire (2004).

Sexuality & Judaism

Judaism takes a moderately conservative stance regarding sexuality: Sex is seen as a divine gift from God not only from a procreation standpoint but for the purpose of companionship and pleasure. Sexuality is not considered to be evil but represents a strong and chronic urge that can be equated to hunger or thirst. Jews believe that sexuality is a strong drive that must be controlled, lest it lead people astray. Marriage is the only allowable outlet for men and women to express their sexuality and avoid the sin of temptation. Judaism sees the consummation of the marriage as more than physical; it is also a thinking act that requires responsibility and commitment. A union for life provides: Shared strength, pleasure, and partnership in raising children. Marriage represents a mitzvah (a good deed) where the woman's sexual needs have the most importance. Sexuality outside marriage is considered wrong or deviant; as are any variation on: Premarital sex, adultery, self-gratification, homosexuality, or bestiality (Nelson, 1999).

Sexuality & Islam

Islam is a ubiquitous force in the Middle East and North Africa and is a crucial factor in understanding sexual behavior. In the Islamic world, sex and honor are often linked, making sexuality an important issue. In the Islamic world, sexual practices have emerged as a critical arena in which social and ideological conflicts are played out. Across the Middle East, for example, female virginity and honor are closely linked, but are not the exclusive concern of one religious group. Female sexuality is seen as posing a threat to collective honor in many Muslim, Christian, Jewish, and Druze communities (Uhlmann, 2005). The threat is seen in the potentially uncontrollable sex drives that are shared by both men and women. While men are seen as having little more luck than women in controlling their sex drives as a result of experiencing sexual pleasure, the consequences are far less serious for men. If a woman, on the other hand, were to experience sexual pleasure, it is believed that she could potentially lose control—with disastrous consequences. As a result, women's actions and bodies are closely policed by others and by the woman herself. It may be helpful to examine the traditional views of different societies and religions on women's sexuality.

Modern Attitudes About Sexuality & Religion

Teen Sexuality & Religious Belief

Mark Regerus, a sociology professor at the University of Texas at Austin, has studied the association between teen sexuality (sexual activity) and religious beliefs. Regerus conducted comprehensive and in-depth interviews when completing his surveys, but because surveys are "notoriously unreliable" (Rosin, 2007). Regerus compared survey responses with the actual practices of teens. Regerus found that while evangelical teens espouse the message of the religious institution (that sex is acceptable in marriage only), their actions may be quite different.

Statistics show that teens who call themselves evangelical actually have sex a bit younger than other teens and tend to have more partners as well (Rosin, 2007). The secular pressure exerted on teens in the twenty-first century is far greater than what their parents experienced a generation ago, especially with the onset of the information age and the spread of digital communications and technology.

Regerus' research found that it is not what religion teens identify with that affects their likelihood to have sex, but rather how strongly they identify themselves with their religious ideals (religiosity). The same research suggests that an "elite minority" (about 16 percent) of teens stated that religion is extremely important in their lives. This elite minority has tremendous discipline over their hormones; not only do they not have sex, but masturbation is also very highly discouraged as "selfish and lustful" (Rosin, 2007).

Sexual Guilt

Other researchers have studied the influence of religion on attitudes about human sexuality from a different perspective. A study conducted a decade before Regerus' revealed that it is "not religion, per se, that influences sexual attitudes and behavior but sex guilt that resulted from early religious training or experience (Gunderson & McCary, 1997). This study reports that the intensity of religious belief has little bearing on sexual attitudes or behaviors if the individual experiences low or no sexual guilt. Sexual guilt has been a part of the Christian faith from its earliest days but became institutionalized with the publication of the Penetentials (Hawkes, 2007). The modern evangelical movement does not allow for much gray area between what is right or wrong when it comes to sex. "Evangelicals see sex as a symbolic boundary separating good Christians from bad" (Rosin, 2007), only sex with the right person of the right gender and under the right circumstances is acceptable. Sexual guilt is still a very effective means of regulating sexuality and suppressing information as well. High sexual guilt has been traditionally associated with low levels of sex information, conservative sexual attitudes, and restricted sexual behavior. Low sexual guilt, on the other hand, has been traditionally associated with high levels of sex information, liberal sexual attitudes, and a high level of sexual activity.

Individuals who attend church more frequently are more likely to experience elevated levels of sexual guilt, which will interfere with their sexuality (Gunderson & McCary, 1997). Christianity has long equated sexual pleasure with sinfulness, the more pleasure that was experienced, the greater the sin. In Maguire's opinion, the "religious grounding" of such beliefs is largely to blame for people in Western culture's inability to face their sexuality (Maguire, 2004).

Religious Doctrine & the Rise of the Laity

Catholicism, like many other religions, has established prescriptive requirements that define appropriate human conduct in relation to sexuality. "Sexuality [is a] contested arena" (Herrara, 2001) for many Catholics. The reaction of practicing Catholics to the 1968 Humanae Vitae (the Catholic Church's official pronouncement that it would not reverse its stance on the use of birth control within the confines of marriage) is outlined in the following quote from Catholic sociologist Andrew Geeley:

Greeley suggests that it was not rank and file Catholics that the Church hierarchy was seeking to control with the release of the "Humanae Vitae" in 1968, but rather the Catholic clergy. At high levels of the ecclesiastica leadership, there was a fear that Catholic clergies were becoming too liberal (Greeley, 1973). Greeley suggests that there has been a definite change in the sexual values of the Catholic clergy; with clergy and laity growing closer in their views about human sexuality. Greeley cites a number of factors that have contributed to the liberalization of the Catholic clergy, including a rise in the number of younger clergies holding modern values. The values and personalities of Catholic clergies are changing, but the ecclesiastical leadership of the Church is unmoved in its stance on sexuality (Greeley, 1973).

In 2013, decades after the "Humanae Vitae" was made public, the Catholic Church continued to hold onto an ideology that becomes more outdated with each passing year. Meanwhile, a 2012 Gallup poll showed that 82 percent of all Catholics in the United States believe the Church should allow the use of contraception. The National Survey of Family Growth 2015-2017 revealed more than 92 percent of Catholics had used condoms and 68 percent used the pill. In 2023, Religion News reported the continued teachings of the Vatican regarding birth control was one of the factors driving young people from weekly mass.

The reaction of practicing Catholics to the "Humanae Vitae" illustrates the willingness of some believers to dismiss religious doctrine in favor of their personal beliefs. This trend toward exhibiting individual moral judgments may be a result of secular influence.

Secularization & Modernization

The term secularization has come to be closely associated with religion. Within this context, the definition is taken to be the opposite of religious and often equated with the declining social power of religion (Bruce, 2002). Secularism is related to the worldly or temporal rather than the spiritual; it emphasizes living in the present world, in the here and now (Vaughn-Foerster, 1999).

Modernization creates problems for religion; it is responsible for the changing social structures which are initiated through the industrialization of work, urbanization, the rise of individualism and economic prosperity (Bruce, 2002). Education, health care, welfare and social control were all once the domain of religious institutions. In modern society, religion's influence is diminished in its impact over non-religious institutions. Specialists who are trained in new bodies of knowledge have replaced religious professionals for guidance on social and familial issues. The Church held unquestioned authority in a single moral universe dependent on a relatively stable social structure (Bruce, 2002). New social roles and increased social mobility have increased the fluidity of social structures and increasing moves to separate Church and State contribute to differing community and religious world views. The modern believer is committed to his beliefs but cannot avoid the knowledge that many other people believe differently (Bruce, 2002).

Secularization impacts beliefs about human sexuality in numerous ways. Increased diversity within society means that individuals view what is sexually acceptable in a variety of ways. Catholic clergies are adopting liberal views towards human sexuality and are becoming much more closely aligned with that of the laity. The rising influence of the "laity" in religious affairs encourages a "separation from religious origins [and the] reconstruction [of a] secular moral system" (Herrara, 2001). The adoption of beliefs based on an individualized, secular moral system enables a customization of one's moral, spiritual, and ethical beliefs. What's called for is "a re-evaluation of the theology of sexuality that allows for diversity of sexual expression within the church community" (Dillashaw, 2000). Simply proscribing a definition of correct sexual expression does not encompass the experience of the majority of members" (Dillashaw, 2000).

The Future: Increased Sexual Tolerance?

In the modern world, people are not only more aware of issues related to sexuality; they are more tolerant of divergent attitudes regarding sexuality. Many do not believe that religious institutions have done enough to address issues of sexuality in modern society. In the opinion of one theologian, "conservative denominations deliver obtuse messages about sexuality that are rooted in scripture and are often seen as turning a blind eye toward contemporary issues of sexuality (Dillashaw, 2000).

More liberal religions are striving to create faith communities that welcome sexual diversity into their congregations by crafting messages that promote the ideas of sexual justice and healing. "Sexuality is God's life-giving and life-fulfilling gift. We come from diverse religious communities to recognize sexuality as central to our humanity and as integral to our spirituality. We are speaking out against the pain, brokenness, oppression, and loss of meaning that many experience about their sexuality" (Haffner, 2002, p. 2).

Individuals in a number of religious denominations are becoming more accepting of contentious issues such as contraception, children born outside of marriage, and homosexuality. For example, as of November, fourteen US states (and the District of Columbia) had legally recognized same-sex marriage. In July 2013, a Gallup poll also indicated that more than half of the country would back a nationwide law legalizing same-sex marriage in all fifty states. Likewise in 2013, Pope Francis took an unprecedented view—greatly differing from his predecessors—in saying that the Catholic Church diverted too much attention to issues like abortion, gay marriage, and contraception. He also notable stated that he does not find homosexual orientation (versus the practice) to be sinful, noting that he does not feel that he can judge a gay person who seeks God. In 2022, Pope Francis gave some Catholics hope that change may be on the horizon concerning the religion's stance on religion, saying, "But know that dogma, morality, is always in a path of development, but development in the same direction" (Mares, 2022).

Terms & Concepts

Ecclesiastical Authority: The Christian belief in God as the supreme authority.

Evangelical: Refers to a religious movement aligned with Protestant Christianity which identifies closely with the gospel, evangelism, and a high regard for Biblical authority.

Humanae Vitae: Of human life 1968 pronouncement by the Vatican that the Catholic Church would not support the use of contraception by practicing Catholics.

Laity: Members of a religious organization that are not clergy.

Sacrament: Something regarded as possessing a sacred character or mysterious significance including baptism, confirmation, marriage, and penance (Sacrament, 2009).

Secularization: The belief that matters of church and state should remain separate; neutral to or moving away from the religious.

Sexuality: Is defined as the way in which an individual expresses themselves as a sexual being through his own unique and individual preferences.

Theocracy: Government ruled by or subject to religious authority.

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Suggested Reading

Adamczyk, A., & Hayes, B. E. (2012). Religion and sexual behaviors: Understanding the influence of Islamic cultures and religious affiliation for explaining sex outside of marriage. American Sociological Review, 77, 723–746. Retrieved November 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=82380711

Dogan, R. (2011). Is honor killing a “Muslim phenomenon”? Textual interpretations and cultural representations. Journal Of Muslim Minority Affairs, 31, 423–440. Retrieved November 13, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=66715030

Morelli, G. (2005). Sex is holy: Psycho-spiritual reflections in a secular world. Orthodoxy Today. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/MorelliSexIsHoly.php

Slowinski, J. (2001). Therapeutic dilemmas: Solving sexual difficulties in the context of religion. Journal of Sex Education & Therapy, 26, 272. Retrieved May 13, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=6823253&site=ehost-live

Williams, R. (1997, November 12). Is America in a culture war? Yes-no-sort of. Christian Century Magazine, 1038-1043. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=176