Religion and Social Stratification
Religion and social stratification involves the hierarchical organization of society based on religious affiliation, where certain religious groups gain more access to power, privilege, and resources than others. This phenomenon is observed not only within various Christian denominations in the United States but also across different religions and countries. The relationship between religion and social stratification is complex, often influenced by factors like religious pluralism, prejudice, competition, and differing levels of power among groups.
Two major theoretical frameworks are commonly used to analyze this relationship: conflict theory and structural functionalism. Conflict theory, rooted in the ideas of Karl Marx, posits that religion can perpetuate social inequality by justifying oppression and maintaining the status quo. In contrast, structural functionalism suggests that some social roles are more demanding, warranting greater rewards and respect in society.
Religious stratification can also be seen in specific contexts, such as the Hindu caste system and social dynamics in Islamic cultures, indicating that this issue transcends geographical and cultural boundaries. The implications of religious stratification include significant disparities in socioeconomic status, education, and occupational prestige among different religious groups. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for grasping how religion interacts with broader social structures and inequalities.
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Subject Terms
Religion and Social Stratification
The relationship between religion and social stratification is a complex one. Religious stratification exists when members of some religions or religious groups have more access to the power, privilege, prestige, and other resources of society than do members of other religions or religious groups. The relationship between religion and social stratification has long been observed not only within Christian denominations in the United States, but in other countries and among other religions as well. This is not merely a historical phenomenon, however. Religious stratification continues to occur today any time that religious pluralism, religious prejudice, competition, and differential power coexist. Whether religious preference causes social stratification or vice versa or if both are the results of other factors is the topic of debate.
A relationship between religion and social stratification has long been observed in the United States. A question that has long been of interest to social theorists is why some members of society have better jobs, more money, influence, or prestige than others. Religious stratification exists when members of some religions or religious groups have more access to the power, privilege, prestige, and other resources of society than do members of other religions or religious groups. Because of the observed relationship between religion and social stratification, a number of theorists are examining its religious underpinnings to determine whether there is something about religion that causes social stratification.
Conflict Theory
Most social scientists apply one of two major theories in an attempt to better understand the relationship between religion and social class. The first is conflict theory. In this theory, as argued by Karl Marx, religion offers a worldview that helps maintain social inequality by justifying oppression. According to social conflict theory, religion is an institution that justifies and perpetuates the ills of society, including social class and social stratification. Rather than resolving conflict or curing social injustice, the conflict analysis approach views religion as the basis of intergroup conflict. According to the conflict perspective, the inequalities and social injustices that exist in society are reflected within the religious institutions themselves (e.g., race, class, or gender stratification). Conflict analysis theorists also believe that religion provides legitimization for oppressive social conditions, thereby supporting and maintaining the status quo. Similarly, they believe that religious practices and rituals define group boundaries within society, thereby supporting an "us vs. them" mentality. Since most religions have historically been patriarchal in nature, this us-them mentality also extends to stratification of genders within religions and religious organizations, with males often being allowed positions of power and authority while women are assigned to subservient roles.
According to Marx, religion is a matter of ideology rather than of faith, and it focuses more on social needs and aspirations than on spirituality. In particular, Marx believed that religion is an ideology of the ruling class and, therefore, supports the status quo. In this approach to explaining religion, subordinate groups come to believe in the legitimacy of the social order that oppresses them by internalizing the ideology of the ruling class. Rather than supporting social change and growth, Marx believed that religion actually impedes them by encouraging lower-strata social groups to focus on the otherworldly things (Andersen & Taylor, 2002).
Structural Functionalism
Another approach to understanding the relationship between religion and social stratification comes from the perspective of structural functionalism. According to this approach, there are three explanations for this relationship. First, some tasks within society are either more important or more demanding than other tasks. Because of this, it is important that society find the best individuals to perform these tasks and route them into these positions. Third, because some tasks typically require greater preparation (e.g., education, experience, talent) than other tasks within society, the individuals who perform these tasks deserve greater income, influence, and respect than those who do not. Similarly, just as people with greater talents and abilities tend to gravitate toward the more demanding, responsible, and difficult tasks within society, those with fewer talents, abilities, and preparation tend to gravitate toward less demanding, more limited positions. Just as the more difficult tasks yield more rewards, the less demanding tasks yield lower rewards (Andersen & Taylor, 2002).
Four Conditions for Religious Stratification
Smith and Faris (2005) found that there are four conditions that are necessary for the development of religious stratification. These are:
- Religious pluralism,
- Religious prejudice,
- Competition, and
- Differential power.
Religious pluralism occurs when there are many different religions actively practiced within a society. Simply stated, if there is no religious pluralism within a society, then there can be no stratification based on differences in religion. The second necessary condition for religious stratification to occur is prejudice. In general, most religions can peacefully coexist with each other and, in fact, can admire what is good in each other. However, when religious differences are accompanied by a worldview that assumes that competing worldviews are inferior, an us-them mentality can occur and prejudice can result. If these religions have mutually exclusive goals and objectives, religious stratification is unlikely to occur. On the other hand, in situations where there is competition for scarce resources (e.g., number of adherents, land, political office), there is a greater likelihood that stratification will occur.
However, even in situations where pluralism, prejudice, and competition all exist, religious stratification will not necessarily arise. There needs to be a difference in power available to the different groups. For example, religious organizations that are larger or better organized are more likely to gain power over other religious organizations that do not have its advantages. When this occurs, the more powerful religious organizations will tend to shape society according to their own worldviews. This can be done in a number of ways. For example, religious affiliation can be written into the law and built into the culture and customs of the society. Even when this is not done formally, more powerful religious groups can establish social norms that are to their advantage but to the disadvantage of other religious groups. Once such norms become ingrained into society, the members of that society take them for granted and religious stratification becomes part of the social order (Smith & Faris, 2005).
Persecution
Historically, this situation occurred in the United States as far back as the colonial period. One of the freedoms on which this country was founded is freedom of religion. However, colonists coming from various European countries brought with them the religious prejudices of those countries. As a result, there was often competition between religious groups vying for various resources. By the time the original 13 colonies were established, therefore, nine had established churches. Even in colonies that did not, most had antitoleration laws that prevented "undesirable" groups such as Catholics and Jews from voting or holding public office. This resulted in a situation in which religious affiliation became embedded in the laws and customs of the colonies, and religious stratification resulted. For example, Anglicans, Congregationalists, and Presbyterians became overrepresented among business, political, and educational elite, and were often known as the "Protestant Establishment." A lower stratum in colonial society comprised Unitarians and Quakers. Beneath this stratum in the social hierarchy were other Protestants, such as Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, and reformed churches. At the bottom of the social hierarchy were non-Protestant groups, including Jews, Catholics, and individuals with no religious preference. These differences in social stratification were accompanied by inequalities of socioeconomic status (Pyle & Davidson, 2003).
Further Insights
Socioeconomic Status & Religion
The correlation of socioeconomic inequality and the American religious system, however, is not merely a phenomenon of historical interest. Smith and Faris (2005) used the General Social Survey data to analyze education, income, and job status and equality in the United States in a 15-year period starting in the early 1980s through the late 1990s. The General Social Survey is a biennial national survey of US noninstitutionalized adults that collects demographic, socioeconomic, and attitudinal data. Data from this survey are often used in the study of religion and social stratification. In their study, Smith and Faris examined four socioeconomic indicators of success. These were:
- Years of education,
- College degree,
- Job prestige, and
- Household income.
The results of this study are shown in Table 1.
Smith and Faris drew several conclusions from these findings. First, the data show that certain religious groups (e.g. Unitarians, Jews, Episcopalians, Presbyterians) consistently had higher levels of education, income, and occupational prestige.
On the other hand, other religious groups (e.g., Jehovah's Witnesses, black Baptists, Southern Baptists, other Pentecostal) consistently had lower levels of socioeconomic status than any of the other groups analyzed. However, not all groups showed such consistency. For example, members of Assembly of God churches had low levels of education, moderate levels of income, and relatively high occupational prestige. These findings support earlier studies of interreligious inequality. In addition, Smith and Faris found that religious inequality showed a high degree of stability across the 15 years analyzed for this study. Further, the socioeconomic inequality appears to be patterned by theology, race and ethnicity, and liturgical style. Specifically, theologically liberal denominations and traditions generally tend to be ranked higher, while more conservative and sectarian groups tend to be ranked among the lowest of the denominations analyzed. Similarly, higher-ranked churches tended to be more hierarchical in structure with a greater emphasis on liturgics (i.e., more formal, tradition-oriented style of worship) than did lower-ranked denominations. In addition, there was also a relationship between ranking and race. Specifically, higher-ranked groups tended to have more white members whereas lower-ranked groups tended to include more racial minorities (Smith & Faris, 2005)
Denomination College Change in % College Change in rank Education Change in mean years Education Change in rank Household income Change in mean income Household income Change in rank Occupational prestige Change in mean prestige Occupational prestige Change in rank Adventist -6.8% -6 +0.69 +2 +$4,517 + 1 +4.6 0 Assembly of God + 10.3% + 1 + 1.55 -3 +$11,498 +9 + 12.3 + 12 Baptist, American + 9.5% +3 + 1.56 +2 +$3,845 + 1 +5.3 -3 Baptist, Black + 5.1% -2 + 1.18 +4 +$451 -1 +9.3 +2 Baptist, Southern + 6.1% + 1 +0.93 -1 +$2,726 -1 +6.2 -1 Catholic + 7.5% 0 +0.84 0 +$4,666 0 +4.3 -1 Episcopal -5.2% 0 +0.41 0 -$5,571 -2 +3.6 +1 Jehovah's Witnesses + 7.0% 0 +0.71 0 +$6,262 +1 +7.1 0 Jewish + 4.5% 0 +0.89 0 +$1,292 0 +2.5 +1 Lutheran, ELCA -1.4% -5 +0.34 -1 -$7,476 -9 +3.6 -2 Lutheran, Missouri/Wisconsin Synods + 14.7% +8 +0.19 -5 +$11,003 +5 +2.8 -5 Methodist, Conservative + 1.3% 0 + 1.73 +6 -$1,876 -5 +8.6 +7 Methodist, United + 4.0% -1 +0.42 + 1 +$2,105 -2 +3.4 -1 Mormons (LDS) + 8.4% +4 +0.09 -4 +$14,261 +6 +4.4 0 Nondenominational (conservative) -0.7% -2 -0.30 -6 +$10,843 +4 +6.5 +4 Nonreligious + 1.2% -2 +0.72 +2 +$1,123 -2 +3.5 -3 Pentecostal, Other + 3.7% + 1 + 1.62 0 +$3,466 -1 +8.8 + 1 Presbyterian USA + 8.4% 0 + 1.00 0 +$3,820 + 1 +2.2 0 UCC + 13.9% +4 +0.75 +3 -$8,213 -7 -4.0 -11 Unitarian -13.9% 0 +0.01 0 +$6,317 +2 -1.9 -1
(Adapted from Smith & Fans, 2005)
Education & Religion
Despite a consistency of such results, several studies of religion in the United States suggest that education is a better predictor of religious belief and membership than other measures of social stratification previously studied. Koch (2006) tested this theory using General Social Survey data from the years 1974 through 2002. The results of Koch's study support the general findings of the literature: denominational affiliation and social stratification are correlated. However, these results do not allow one to determine whether denominational affiliation tends to result in changes that result in belonging to a particular social stratification, if one's social stratum tends to determine one's denomination, or whether both these observed results are caused by yet another factor or factors. However, the findings of this study indicate that level of education is a better predictor of denominational affiliation than income, class, or job status alone. Education was not found (as has been suggested by previous theorists) to transcend denominations, but to predict denominational affiliation. The implication of this result is that the interaction between denomination and education are more complex than previously theorized (Koch, 2006).
Caste Systems
Social stratification based on religious criteria can be observed not only in United States, but within other countries and religions as well. Arguably, one of the best examples of religion encouraging stratification of society is found in the Hindu caste system. A caste is a small, hereditary group of individuals that marry within the group and has a specific lifestyle (e.g., ritual status, occupation). This hierarchical religious system influences and can determine social status, limiting not only what adherents can do within the religion, but also affecting the jobs to which one can aspire as well as the resulting socioeconomic status and religious privilege of members of that caste and who can aspire to position within the government. The highest caste in Hinduism is the Brahmins, who are priests and philosophers and were historically subsidized by the state. The next-lower caste comprises the Kshatriyas, the Hindu upper middle class, who take jobs as professionals and government officials. Under this caste is the Vaisya caste, whose members are merchants and farmers. Below this caste are the Sudras, who serve as laborers and servants to members of higher castes. The Ati Sudras or Dalits (formerly considered "untouchable") can engage only in the most menial jobs. Members of the upper castes have traditionally possessed great land and power, while members of lower castes were servants and among the poorest people in society. This was particularly true in the case of the untouchables, who were not allowed access to public wells or schools, could not participate in village festivals, and were prohibited from entering some shops owned by members of higher castes.
Islamic Cultures
Social stratification based on religious affiliation can also be observed in Islamic countries. Yeld (1960) examined the interaction between Islam and social stratification in northern Nigeria. Of the population at the time of the analysis, approximately 70 percent of the inhabitants of northern Nigeria were Muslim, while 30 percent were pagan and fewer than 1 percent were Christian. The Hausa-speaking people who were the subject of this study comprised more than a third of the total population and were primarily Muslim. Although there were significant populations of Hausa in the large urban centers of Kano, Zaria, and Sokoto, rural Hausa communities ranged in size from 50 to 2000 inhabitants. These communities tended to be agricultural and largely self-supporting. Within these communities, the highest position of social status was the village head, who deals for the people with the state government at large. Under the village head were the village elders, who were the heads of families and smaller subgroups within the village. Of equal status to the village elders were the heads of hereditary fishing, hunting, and priestly occupations connected with annual sacrifices to local spirits.
Within the general village community, status was determined by generation (e.g., grandparents, parents, children), although no further distinction was made on the basis of age within a generation. Within the smaller villages (i.e., a few thousand), status was determined by three closely linked factors: legal, ethnic, and religious. These factors affected status not only in small village communities but within large urban centers as well. In all these venues, Muslims had higher status than either pagans or Christians. The superior religious status of Muslims began in the early nineteenth century and was originally linked to Fulani ethnic domination over the majority of the Hausa. Adherence to Islam has been shown through attendance at communal prayers, shaving the head, and wearing a gown and fez or turban. Although the faithful are enjoined to prayer by the Quran, the latter displays "along with the use of Arabic expressions" were adopted from North African Muslims (Yeld, 1960).
Conclusion
Religious stratification exists when members of some religions or religious groups have more access to the power, privilege, prestige, and other resources of society than do members of other religions or religious groups. Religious stratification has long been observed not only within Christian denominations in the United States, but in other countries and among other religions as well. Far from being a historical phenomenon, religious stratification still occurs in the twenty-first century. In fact, religious stratification can occur any time that religious pluralism, religious prejudice, competition, and differential power coexist. However, the relationship between religion and social stratification is a complex one, and more research is needed to adequately and accurately model the relationship.
Terms & Concepts
Conflict Perspective: An approach to analyzing social behavior that is based on the assumption that social behavior is best explained and understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.
Correlation: The degree to which two events or variables are consistently related. Correlation may be positive (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable increases), negative (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable decreases), or zero (i.e., the values of the two variables are unrelated). Correlation does not imply causation.
Denomination: A large group of congregations united under a common statement of faith and organized under a single legal and administrative hierarchy. Many individual congregations include the name of their denomination in the title of their church (e.g., First Baptist Church, St. Luke's Lutheran Church).
Norms: Standards or patterns of behavior that are accepted as normal within the culture.
Religion: A personal or institutional system grounded in the belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers considered to have created and to govern the universe.
Religious Pluralism: The term religious pluralism has several commonly used meanings. A synonym for religious diversity, or the recognition that there are many different religions actively practiced within a country. A basic form of ecumenism in which adherents of different religions dialog and learn from each other without trying to proselytize. Acceptance that the beliefs of other religions are valid although not necessarily true.
Social Stratification: A relatively fixed hierarchical organization of a society in which entire subgroups are ranked according to social class. These divisions are marked by differences in economic rewards and power within the society and different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social stratification is a system of structured social inequality.
Social Class: A group of people with a similar hierarchical position within a society relative to the economic, social, political, and cultural resources of that society.
Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.
Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.
Status: A socially established position within a society or other social structure that carries with it a recognized level of prestige.
Structural Functionalism: A theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of social order and the relationship between the various parts (structures) in society and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole.
Worldview: Broad framework of ideas and beliefs used by an individual, class, or culture to interpret the data received from the world and determine the appropriate way of interacting with the world.
Bibliography
Andersen, M. L., & Taylor, H. F. (2002). Sociology: Understanding a diverse society. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Davidson, J. D., & Pyle, R. E. (2005). Social class. In H. R. Ebaugh (Ed.), Handbook of religion and social institutions. New York, NY: Springer, 185-205. Retrieved June 2, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=21761877&site=ehost-live
Davidson, J. D., & Pyle, R. E. (2011). Ranking faiths: Religious stratification in America. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Retrieved November 7, 2013 from EBSCO online database eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=350465&site=ehost-live
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Koch, B. A. (2006). Denomination and class: Disentangling education. Conference Papers -- American Sociological Association; 2006 Annual Meeting, Montreal, 1-14. Retrieved June 2, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=26642030&site=ehost-live
Pyle, R. E., & Davidson, J. D. (2003). The origins of religious stratification in colonial America. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 57-75. Retrieved June 2, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9049237&site=ehost-live
Schaefer, R. T. (2002). Sociology: A brief introduction (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Schieman, S. (2010). Socioeconomic status and beliefs about God's influence in everyday life. Sociology of Religion, 71(1), 25-51. Retrieved November 7, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=48752467
Schieman, S., & Jung, J. (2012). 'Practical divine influence': Socioeconomic status and belief in the prosperity gospel. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 51(4), 738-756. Retrieved November 7, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=83847044
Smith, C., & Faris, R. (2005). Socioeconomic inequality in the American religious system: An update and assessment. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 44(1), 95-104. Retrieved June 2, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16018663&site=ehost-live
Stockard, J. (2000). Sociology: Discovering society (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Yeld, E. R. (1960). Islam and social stratification in northern Nigeria. British Journal of Sociology, 11(2), 112-128. Retrieved June 2, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=10387012&site=ehost-live
Suggested Reading
Altero, J., & Saravia, R. (2003). Dimensions of social stratification and anomie as factors of religious affiliation in El Salvador. Sociology of Religion, 64(1), 1-18. Retrieved June 2, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9520048&site=ehost-live
Day, G., & Fitton, M. (1975). Religion and social status in rural Wales: "Buchedd" and its lessons for concepts of stratification in community studies. Sociological Review, 23(4), 867-891. Retrieved 2 June 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=5461258&site=ehost-live
Finke, R., McCarthy, J., & Keister, L. A. (2012). Religion, work and inequality. Bingley, England: Emerald. Retrieved November 7, 2013 from EBSCO online database eBook Collection (EBSCOhost). http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=452130&site=ehost-live
Hammond, M. (1978). Durkheim's reality construction model and the emergence of social stratification. Sociological Review, 26(4), 713-728. Retrieved June 2, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=7030583&site=ehost-live
Heaton, T. (2013). Religion and socioeconomic status in developing nations: A comparative approach. Social Compass, 60(1), 97-114. Retrieved November 7, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=86386434