Religion and Society: Religious Persecution

Persecution in the name of religion has occurred throughout history and continues around the globe. Expressions of persecution may be subtle and individual, such as the teasing of an Islamic child for wearing a head covering, to acute and global, such as terrorist attacks and war. The study of religious persecution is more than the study of an interesting phenomenon: It is the study of a violation of human rights. Sociologists can add to the understanding of religious persecution and aid in its reduction or elimination by helping to develop better definitions of religious persecution, investigating and articulating its antecedents, and devising ways to neutralize religious persecution in an effort to promote worldwide human rights.

Keywords Abuse; Adiaphora; Bullying; Fundamentalism; Harassment; Heresy; Human Rights Movement; Monotheism; Orthodoxy; Pogrom; Religion; Religiosity; Religious Persecution; Validity; Xenophobia

Sociology of Religion > Religion & Society: Religious Persecution

Overview

The paths of many religions are stained with the blood of martyrs. The Jewish prophet Isaiah, for example, is reported to have been sawn in half. The early history of the Christian Church is full of stories of people being executed in Roman arenas or burned alive for their beliefs. The Shi'ite sect of Islam follows the teachings of a martyred leader. Such examples of being persecuted for one's religion, of course, are not only extreme, but relatively rare. More prevalent in the twenty-first century—and perhaps more chilling—are persecutions that have turned systematic such as the Crusades of Christians against the Muslim world or the Holocaust in which Hitler tried to systematically wipe everyone of Jewish extraction off the face of the planet.

Persecution in the name of religion has a long history, but it also occurs globally in the twenty-first century. The harassment of an Islamic girl for wearing a hijab (traditional head covering for observant Islamic women) or of an orthodox Jewish boy for wearing a yarmulke (skull cap worn by observant Jewish males, particularly of the Orthodox and Conservative sects) are contemporary examples of religious persecution on a small scale as is the prejudice shown toward a Christian in the workplace who actively tries to proselytize. All are behaving according to the tenets of their respective religions and are being mistreated because of it. Persecution of individuals and groups because of religious beliefs or demonstrations of religiosity is still alive on a large scale, as the conflicts between Hindus and Muslims in India, the Chinese government persecution of the Falun Gong sect, or the religious persecution of Christians in Pakistan reflect.

The Reasons & Manifestations of Religious Persecution

Religious persecution is the systematic act or practice of oppressing or harassing an individual or group by mistreating them based on their religious affiliation or practices. Individuals or groups are persecuted on the basis of their religious beliefs and practices for a number of reasons. Perhaps the most obvious of these is persecution on the basis of religious ideology, doctrine, or belief. Examples of this kind of religious persecution include the persecution of Hindus by Muslims in India or the terrorist attacks perpetrated by Islamic extremists on the World Trade Center, the London Underground, and the U.S.S. Cole. However, intolerance and religious persecution are not only perpetrated by adherents of Islam. The Crusades are an example of religious persecution of the severest type and were perpetrated by Christians against the Muslim world. Although some religions, such as Hinduism, teach tolerance and are open to the teachings of other religions, others do not. Some religions teach that there is only one way to know and please God. When groups have mutually exclusive perspectives on how this is done, conflict in the form of religious persecution is a frequent result. This particularly becomes a problem when fundamentalist sects perceive that members of another religion with opposing and mutually exclusive views are threatening their own quality of life, recognized position of being right, or even their very survival. For example, it was a fundamentalist sect of Islam that perpetrated the terrorist attacks in the West. Religious persecution not only occurs between members of different religions; it also occurs within a single religion between people holding different beliefs. Issues of orthodoxy and heresy have long been matters of great dispute within religions, as is evidenced by such examples as the Spanish Inquisition or the persecution of the Huguenots by the Catholics in France during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This type of religious persecution is often particularly confusing and disturbing to outside observers who do not understand the differences in belief for the sects or why such differences should matter.

Sometimes, however, religious persecution occurs for reasons less overtly religious. For example, sometimes religious persecution is directed toward a religious group not particularly because of its religion, but because of its ethnicity. An example of religious persecution being performed in the furtherance of xenophobia can be seen in the Holocaust and the systematic attempt at eradicating the Jews, Gypsies, and other groups considered undesirable by Hitler and many of the Nazis. In addition, persecution of religious groups can occur when the religion is seen as competition for a political system. The persecution of Christians in the former Soviet Union is one example of this kind of religious persecution. Other examples include the persecution of the Falun Gong sect in China and the persecution of Christians and Muslims in Myanmar.

The Study of Religious Persecution

Although from a scientific perspective, it could be said that the study of religious persecution is of interest in its own right, the goal of such study should be not to gain understanding, but to gain understanding to prevent further religious persecution. The study of religious persecution is more than the study of an interesting phenomenon: It is the study of a violation of human rights. In an example of this, Martin discussed the nature of the world's three monotheistic religions in a high-level investigation of the phenomena of religious persecution and human rights (2005). Although, perhaps, to some extent, it may be understandable that religious persecution arises between groups whose belief systems are vastly different and mutually exclusive, religious persecution historically has arisen between the three major religions for as long as they have been in existence.

Historically, Judaism was the first of these religions to arise. Among other beliefs, Jews hold that Moses was the chief of all God's prophets and that religious law has not changed, and God will never pass down any other law. Originally, Christianity arose as a sect of Judaism that believed that Jesus of Nazareth was not only the long-expected Jewish Messiah, but the Son of God. The two religions soon parted ways not only on these issues, but also on the issue of the addition of other books to the canon of scripture. When Islam arose several centuries later, it departed from Christianity by superseding Jesus with another prophet and demoting him from the Son of God to a lesser prophet. Despite these theological differences, however, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all claim similar systems of morality, including concepts of human dignity, equality, and social justice (Martin, 2005). However, as history shows, these commonalities have been insufficient to bind the three together and much of the religious persecution of the world in the past two millennia arises out of conflicts between these three religions.

Prejudice & Discrimination

As the history of religious persecution amply demonstrates, religion can not only be a source of reconciliation and healing, but a source of prejudice and discrimination as well (Martin, 2005). As the differences between the three major monotheistic religions of the world suggests, despite their commonalities of monotheism and a belief that God communicates with humans and influences their lives and history, the differences are substantial. Religions inform not only one's spiritual belief systems, but one's moral convictions, social identity, and support systems as well. These differences range from differences in the interpretation of scripture and what constitutes the entirety of the scriptural canon to differences between political or religious leadership at any given time. These differences (as well as the concomitant similarities and adiaphora) define not only a worldview, but also create a normative meaning system that builds on participation in a clearly defined, exclusive community (Martin, 2005). It is from these normative meaning systems rather than religiosity that religious persecution typically arises. One of the difficulties that the human rights movement encounters in attempting to reduce or eliminate religious persecution is that its minimization of exclusivity and emphasis on inclusiveness goes against years of established tradition, belief, culture, and practice.

Many social observers and theorists believe that to advance the cause of human rights around the world, each religious tradition (particularly the three major monotheistic traditions) needs to encourage its members to an attitude of greater tolerance of both diversity in its ranks as well as with other religions. However, this is often difficult to do, particularly in countries that are not pluralistic in nature. In such situations, although it may be the beliefs and tenets of a religion that have shaped the society, over the years society reinforces the religious beliefs and tenets. This can be a difficult cycle to break.

Sociologists and other scholars can help by analyzing and delineating the differences between cultural and historical variations within religious traditions, and by challenging adherents in general and religious leadership in particular to determine which of these represents a core belief and which are adiaphora. Analysis and research into the ways that civil governments and authorities deal with religious diversity is one interesting area of possible sociological investigation. For example, religious diversity does not lead to religious persecution in all parts of the world. What factors cause this difference? Another area of investigation that could aid in the understanding and reduction of religious persecution might be the understanding of the historical differences that have contributed to greater or lesser degrees of religious persecution or tolerance over the centuries. Investigation of the ways in which different religions and cultures view the nature of humans in general and humans in other cultures or religions in particular might help scholars and researchers better understand religious persecution and to devise practical ways in which it might be addressed and diminished within various cultures.

Applications

Defining & Understanding Religious Persecution

As in much of sociology in general and the sociology of religion in particular, the general definition of religious persecution is broad and vague and the underlying issues complex and interrelated. To advance our understanding of religious persecution and its causes, it is important, therefore, to develop consistent, multidimensional scales to define and measure the various dimensions of this phenomenon. Over the years, the ways in which individuals and groups have been persecuted for their religious beliefs and practices have been varied and creative. If one considers religious persecution to be a continuum, one might put verbal forms of persecution on one end and lethal physical persecution on the other. In the middle would be a wide range of other actions that harm the persecuted individual or group psychologically, socially, or physically. At the verbal end of the continuum, evidence of persecution might include verbal abuse (e.g., interactions in which the persecutor demeans the other person because of his/her religion), harassment (e.g., persistently irritating or commencing the other person), or malicious teasing (e.g., making another person feel inferior because of the way they dress or act based on their religious beliefs). Religious persecution can also be social. For example, the segregation and separation of people from a persecuted religion (e.g., Jewish ghettos) is one form of social persecution. Social persecution can also take the form of intolerance for outward displays or the practice of one's religion (e.g., refusal to allow Muslim girls to wear a hijab in school). Religious persecution can also be psychological in nature. For example, discrimination in the workplace or elsewhere in society based on one's religion, forced conversion of members of a persecuted religion to a mainstream religion, and censorship of the writings, speech, or other outward signs of the persecuted religion exemplify this type of persecution. Other types of persecution are more physical in nature. Some acts of physical persecution are toward property such as the desecration of the synagogue, the throwing of a brick through the window of a mosque, or the painting of a swastika or Star of David on the side of a house owned by a Jew. More violent still are acts of persecution that result in violence against a person. Such violence against a persecuted religion could be as individual as a beating or mugging of a person for his/her religious beliefs or as widespread as a pogrom, terrorism, war, or even genocide.

Determining Persecution

Even with the development of a valid, comprehensive definition of religious persecution and concomitant measurement scales, determining whether someone is truly persecuted can be a difficult task. As discussed above, persecution can run the gamut from teasing and verbal harassment to violence, terrorism, and war. It is difficult for one scale to adequately measure the entire continuum of acts of persecution. In addition, not everyone who is being persecuted will be willing to admit to it for fear of reprisals, the desire to appear strong in front of others, the fear of encouraging those who are persecuting them, or any other number of reasons. Further, although some activities are easy to categorize as persecution (e.g., open violence, wars, genocide), others are not. Some actions are more subtle and can be camouflaged as legitimate acts within accepted limits, such as the persecution of someone in the workplace for their religious beliefs by not promoting them. Similarly, it can be difficult to separate the verbal or even physical harassment of a child for religious reasons from bullying in general. In both cases, the actions may be the same, and only the persecutor is likely to know the difference. The persecutor, of course, is also unlikely to say what the reason for his/her actions was.

However, just because those who are being persecuted are reluctant to admit it does not mean that persecution is not happening. Further, in some areas where persecution is occurring, it may be difficult or impossible to gain access to a representative sample of individuals to determine the extent of the persecution they are experiencing because of such things as government prohibitions (particularly when it is the government that is doing the persecuting) or the dangers that may be encountered in entering an area in which persecution is prevalent. In addition, perceptions of persecution are part of the definition of paranoia. Researchers must be careful to distinguish between actual and perceived persecution. On the other hand, if one perceives that they are being persecuted, is it not true to some extent? As the old joke goes, "you're not paranoid if people really are out to get you."

Conclusion

For many people, religious belief systems are much more than empty shows of religiosity. Religious beliefs define who they are as person, how they view the world, and how they define the differences between right and wrong. Further, religion not only shapes who many people are as individuals but shapes the laws of their societies and the expectations of their cultures. Despite the fact that most religions teach tolerance and understanding, therefore, it is understandable that persecution arises out of zealousness and an impulse to proselytize.

Although religious persecution may be considered an interesting topic from a sociological point of view, it is much more than that: It is an issue of human rights. Although work is being done in political arenas to reduce or eliminate religious persecution and increase tolerance for all people, because of the depth of religious conviction held by many people and societies, religious persecution is unlikely to stop by fiat. Sociologists can aid in the process of reducing or eliminating religious persecution by investigating both the causes and mechanisms of persecution as well as ways to stop it on a human rather than a political level.

Terms & Concepts

Abuse: Physical or verbal behavior that is violent toward or demeaning or invasive of another person.

Adiaphora: In religion, adiaphora refers to things that are not core values or essential to the faith and, therefore, a matter of individual interpretation that can be allowed within the confines of orthodoxy.

Bullying: Persistently threatening or aggressive actions or behavior that are directed toward another person, particularly one who is weaker or smaller.

Fundamentalism: A theological movement within many religions (e.g., Christianity, Islam) that attempts to reject the tenets and influences of contemporary secular culture and return to the basics (i.e., fundamentals) of the faith, typically through the literal interpretation of scripture.

Harassment: The process of persistently irritating or tormenting another person or group.

Heresy: A religious opinion or doctrine that is at variance with the established beliefs and teachings of the denomination or church. The term is sometimes used in a more narrow meaning to refer to dissension from accepted Roman Catholic doctrine by one who is a baptized member of the Roman Catholic Church. Heresy also refers to the practice of adhering to such an opinion of doctrine.

Human Rights Movement: An international movement that promotes the cause of human rights throughout the globe. According to Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

Monotheism: The doctrine or belief in only one God.

Orthodoxy: Beliefs or teachings that are in accordance with the accepted or traditional teachings of an established faith or religion.

Pogrom: Organized massacre or persecution of a minority group, particularly the Jews. Pogroms are often officially encouraged or sanctioned.

Religion: A personal or institutional system grounded in the belief in and reverence for a supernatural power or powers considered to have created and to govern the universe.

Religiosity: The quality of being religious or the intensity and consistency of one's practice of a religion. Religiosity is measured by asking about religious beliefs, measuring membership in religious organizations, and measuring attendance at religious services. The term religiosity can also be used to refer to an excessive devotion to religion.

Religious Persecution: The systematic act or practice of oppressing or harassing an individual or group by mistreating them based on their religious affiliation or practices.

Validity: The degree to which a survey or other data collection instrument measures what it purports to measure. A data collection instrument cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Content validity is a measure of how well assessment instrument items reflect the concepts that the instrument developer is trying to assess. Content validation is often performed by experts. An assessment instrument measures what it is intended to measure as defined by another assessment instrument. Face validity is merely the concept that an assessment instrument appears to measure what it is trying to measure. Cross validity is the validation of an assessment instrument with a new sample to determine if the instrument is valid across situations. Predictive validity refers to how well an assessment instrument predicts future events.

Xenophobia: Fear of or contempt for things or people that are different or strange from the other person's point of view.

Bibliography

Bandow, D. (2020, May 3). Religious Persecution Around the Globe: A Guide. Cato Institute. Retrieved May 30, 2023, from https://www.cato.org/commentary/religious-persecution-around-globe-guide

Davis, D. H. (1998). Thoughts on religious persecution around the globe: Problems and solutions. Journal of Church and State, 40, 279-286. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=896998

Engh, M. J. (2006). In the name of heaven: 3000 years of religious persecution. Prometheus Books.

Hankins, B. G. (1997). Religious coercion in a postmodern age. Journal of Church and State, 39, 5-14. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9708312805&site=ehost-live.

Hjerm, M., & Nagayoshi, K. (2011). The composition of the minority population as a threat: Can real economic and cultural threats explain xenophobia? International Sociology, 26, 815-843. Retrieved November 1, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=66816381

Hodge, D. R. (2012). Social justice, international human rights, and religious persecution: The status of the marginalized human right—religious freedom. Social Work & Christianity, 39, 3-26. Retrieved November 1, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=72371344

Martin, J. P. (2005). The three monotheistic world religions and international human rights. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 827-845. Retrieved May 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=18856403&site=ehost-live

Sarkissian, A. (2011). The price of freedom denied: Religious persecution and conflict in the twenty-first century by Brian J. Grim and Roger Finke. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 50, 841-842. Retrieved November 1, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=67612235

Suggested Reading

Faimau, G. (2013). British Christian print media and the framing of Islam and Muslims through the lens of Christian persecution. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 34, 340-355. Retrieved November 1, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89931016

Healey, S. (2005). Religion and terror: A post-9/11 analysis. International Journal on World Peace, 22, 3-23. Retrieved May 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=19754697&site=ehost-live

Herzke, A. D. & Philpott, D. (2000). Defending the faiths. The National Interest, 74-81. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=3546295&site=ehost-live

Karger, T. (2012). Persecution and toleration of non-traditional religious minorities before and after 1989. Czech Sociological Review, 48, 1213-1214. Retrieved November 1, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=85679608

Religious persecution in today's Germany: Old habits renewed. (1998). Journal of Church and State, 40, 741-756. Retrieved May 15, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=1550557&site=ehost-live