Religious Nationalism

Religious nationalism can be viewed as a situation in which religion is used as a tool or veil to justify nationalistic attitudes and actions. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, religious nationalism has been on the rise across the globe and is increasingly associated with religious terrorism. The relationship between religion and nationalism is a complex one and not yet well understood. The rise in religious nationalism can be attributed to many factors. One theory on the relationship between religion and nationalism examines the clash between the effects of increasing globalization and the McWorld mentality. Another approach is to view religious nationalism as a religious reaction against secular governments and politics that do not represent the underlying morality of large groups within a society. As long as these conditions continue, it is likely that incidents of religious nationalism and religious terrorism will also continue. Research is needed to better understand the antecedents of these trends and to determine more legitimate ways for meeting the needs of society.

Keywords Belief System; Culture; Fundamentalism; Globalization; Ideology; Nationalism; Postmodernism; Religion; Religious Nationalism; Religious Pluralism; Sect; Society; Terrorism; Worldview

Sociology of Religion > Religious Nationalism

Overview

Globalization

Once an historical novelty, globalization (the business practice of extending an organization's sales, ownership, or production to new markets in other countries) is now commonplace. The dress on the rack in the local department store may have been manufactured in Taiwan, and the "Japanese" automobile driven to work may have been manufactured in Kentucky. However, globalization has an effect on not only tangible goods but services as well. The technician answering the phone on the American software help line, for example, may be sitting at a desk in India. There are many reasons for this trend. Particularly in a time of economic difficulties, some organizations attempt to expand their income by expanding their business markets and customer bases. Other organizations find themselves needing to stay competitive in a global economy by having work performed as economically as possible, resulting in the outsourcing or offshoring of tasks that can be performed more economically in other countries. It has been estimated that in the decade between 2000 and 2010, approximately 2.4 million corporate jobs previously done in the United States were moved offshore. As a result of this trend, individuals and corporations alike need to be able to interact and work well with others in societies and cultures that can seem as strange and exotic as the native tongues of their competitors and contractors. Increasing numbers of businesses are finding that if they are to survive, they need to be able to compete not only in the local or national marketplace but within the global marketplace as well.

The concept of globalization may seem better applied in the world of business than in social science. However, globalization has many sociological implications for how people interact with each other and even how one defines society. People and cultures that were mere mentions in dusty books a century ago can now be seen on our television screens thanks to travel channels and the nightly news, and the actions of these once-distant cultures can affect us in very real ways. Barber, for example, posits that many of the intercultural clashes seen in the headlines today are a result of globalization (1992).

Nationalism

Nationalism is the collective attitude of the members of a culture or society that arises from their identification with their nation. In this sense, "nation" is usually defined in terms of ethnicity or culture. Nationalistic feelings typically imply that members believe that their primary allegiance is to the nation and can often lead to a belief in national superiority. When such feelings are further compounded by a pervasive religious belief system and concomitant worldview that differs from that of another culture or nation, conflict can erupt. The resulting religious nationalism can be defined as nationalism in which religion is used as a tool or veil to justify nationalistic attitudes and actions. Religious nationalism typically occurs in societies that do not have a high degree of religious pluralism or in which religion is closely associated with the national culture. Religious nationalism typically contrasts specific, privileged artifacts, habits, morals, or ideologies of a contemporary society with those of the past or of other regions, religions, nations, or cultures.

Reasons for Religion-Nationalism Relationship

In general, two explanations are proffered to explain the relationship between religion and nationalism. The first of these theories assumes that there are definite causal connections between the two factors. Adherents of this view believe that nationalism and national ideologies are used by religions as a means to an end, specifically the establishment of their own value system within the society. This theory is flawed, however, to the extent that the beliefs of theologians are not absolutely reflected in the beliefs of a religion's adherents. Many adherents, in fact, are typically content to live with one foot in a secular society and the other in religion. Further, with the exception of cults that typically have a single charismatic leader, religions are generally far from homogeneous. Take, for example, the Christian religion within the United States. Arguably, with the exception of certain core values by which individuals are operationally defined to be members of this group, the belief systems of adherents run the gamut from liberal, nearly secular views on the extreme left to ultraconservative, fundamentalist views on the extreme right. Views on such politically charged issues as abortion, gay rights, the death penalty, and torture vary widely within this heterogeneous group as well.

The other general explanation for the relationship between religion and nationalism states that there is no substantial link between these two factors. Although religious symbolism and rhetoric can be misused in the advancement of political and nationalistic causes, the relationship is superficial and accidental. However, this explanation (or non-explanation) fails to analyze the underlying factors leading to the occurrence of religious nationalism.

Barber's McWorld

For many Americans, the concept of religious nationalism did not become a reality until the terrorist attacks of 9/11. Even before then, Barber maintained that such social conflict was bound to erupt due to the vastly different ideologies of high-tech, secular Western culture, which he refers to as McWorld, and the religious nationalism of some other countries that do not hold to this ideology (1992). According to Barber, the McWorld dynamic comprises "four imperatives . . . : a market imperative, a resource imperative, an information-technology imperative, and an ecological imperative" (par. 4). This combination of factors has helped Western society overcome nationalism to a great extent in favor of a more global worldview, as was predicted by Marxism. Globalization and its market imperative have also reinforced the desire for international peace and stability in order to promote a more efficient global economy. In addition, the resource imperative involves the need for societies to be self-sufficient and independent of other societies. Given the historical background of the United States, with its founding in a land of seemingly unlimited resources, the move from independence to interdependence on other countries within the global marketplace has been a difficult one. This is further complicated by the information-technology imperative, or the fact that business, banking, and commerce today are dependent on the flow of information and facilitated by new technologies. Through information technology, business can now be conducted around the world 24 hours a day, seven days a week. As science and technology continue to advance, capabilities to communicate in an instant around the world will also advance. This situation will require the involved societies to be continually more open to each other. Finally, the ecological imperative concomitantly requires individuals, corporations, and nations to be more aware of the impact of their actions on the health of the planet. Although this is arguably a good thing, it can also have the unintended side effect of inhibiting the growth of developing nations. This occurs as the developed world strives to undo the negative impact some of its advances have had on the planet by keeping developing nations from compounding the problem.

Wars & Conflict

These four imperatives cross the boundaries of nation, ideology, and culture within the global society. However, not every nation is part of Barber's McWorld. On the other side of the equation are those nations that Barber refers to as "the forces of Jihad" (Barber, 1992, par. 3). The term "jihad" is used not in the traditional sense of a religious struggle toward righteousness but as a more general term to describe those societies that are marked by late twentieth- and early twenty-first-century religious nationalism and not considered part of McWorld. These can be either nation-states or subgroups within nation-states or other societies, such as fundamentalist religious sects. Whereas in the past nationalism was a force to unify and create society, today it tends to be reactionary and divisive instead. As a result, the modern world typically experiences a host of small ethnic, racial, tribal, or religious wars. As is evidenced by travel restrictions and advisories regarding many parts of the globe, this situation continues. The intent of many of these small wars is not only to redefine boundaries but also to react against the pervasiveness of globalization and McWorld. From this viewpoint, jihad became an expression of community identity and an end in itself. Although sometimes this results in war and terrorism, in many cases it does not. However, even in such instances, the thrust is toward secession and ever smaller communities. For example, separatists fight in Switzerland and Spain; nations of the former Soviet Union continued to split, divide, and fight; and African and Middle Eastern groups in various countries fight amongst themselves.

Such fights and wars occur not only on the bases of nationalism and ethnicity but also on the basis of religion. For example, it has been contended that Islamic fundamentalists see Western civilization as the greatest challenge they have ever faced in their efforts to maintain what they believe is an appropriate way of life for their people. Through religious nationalism, Islamic fundamentalists have been able to articulate and aim the resentment and anger felt by certain Muslims in Islamic countries at the devaluation they perceive of their traditional values in the West.

Applications

As discussed above, the result of religious nationalism can be seen around the world in conflicts large and small. Arguably, the one that comes most easily to mind is the putative war on terror between the United States and Islamic extremists sparked by the attacks on the World Trade Center on 9/11. However, religious nationalism is a much larger concept than this one struggle and occurs in a wide range of situations. Examples of religious nationalism that have resulted in terrorism in recent history include Aum Shinrikyo's sarin nerve gas attack on the Kasumigaseki subway station in Tokyo, car bombings and political assassinations in India, Hamas suicide bus bombings in Jerusalem, and the murder of staffers at women's health clinics by militant right-wing Christians in the United States.

Religions & Public Power

In 1997, Juergensmeyer conducted a series of interviews and analyzed a number of case studies in an attempt to better understand why religious groups were increasingly seeking public power at the time. He used the case of the Aum Shinrikyo nerve gas attacks on the Tokyo subway in 1994. In recent years, Japan, like many other countries, has seen an explosive growth in new religious movements. Aum Shinrikyo is a new religion with an eclectic religious philosophy that blends Mahayana and Buddhism with New Age mysticism, self-help philosophy, and the apocalyptic visions associated with some Christian beliefs. Aum Shinrikyo is secretive, has a cathartic initiation process, requires subservience to a dominating leader, and is marked by paranoia and a black-and-white view of the world. Although this might be accurately said of any number of religions, Aum Shinrikyo projected these ideas onto the political plane. This combination of factors resulted in the religion's adherents viewing the secular Japanese state as a satanic foe, which spurred them to challenge the prevailing social order and its recognized authorities. For example, the leader of Aum Shinrikyo taught that the Japanese government was in league with United States in attempting to destroy religion across the globe. He further predicted a new political order to be led by the religion's adherents after a third world war, projected to occur around the turn of the millennium. The 1994 sarin nerve gas attacks were intended to be an indication of this predicted conflagration. The leader encouraged Japanese citizens to join Aum Shinrikyo, which, he said, could protect them from the coming conflagration, whereas the secular Japanese state could not.

The Kasumigaseki subway station was chosen as the site of the Aum Shinrikyo attack not only because of its proximity to the Diet Building, a symbol of secular power, but also because a successful attack on this location, which had been described as a good place to shelter, would show the powerlessness of the secular government. This is typically true of religious terrorist attacks. In most other recent examples of religious terrorism, the target of attack has had symbolic significance. For example, within the United States, religious pro-life terrorists tend to target women's health clinics that perform abortions. However, even when the target of the attack is more general, it is still symbolic of the secular government in power: the World Trade Center, the Oklahoma City federal building, or airplanes, subways, and other modes of public transportation. Such targets are general symbols representing the power and stability of the society under attack. By attacking the symbols of power, therefore, religious terrorists can assert both their power and their legitimacy.

Religious Terrorism in the Postmodern Era

Attacks of religious terrorism appear to be on the rise during the postmodern era. Juergensmeyer points to a number of reasons behind this trend. First, the breakup of the former Soviet Union and the precipitous rise of various Asian economies within the last quarter of the twentieth century resulted in a public sense of insecurity, not only in the societies that were economically devastated by these changes, but also in societies that were economically stronger. For example, within the United States, there was a great deal of dissatisfaction with political leaders and a concomitant rise in right-wing religious movements that both reflected and supported the public's perception of the government's immorality. This political and economic upheaval led to a loss of faith in secular nationalism. Juergensmeyer predicted that these trends would continue, noting that although acts of religious terrorism tend to be conducted by small groups, they typically have a broad basis of support within their societies. Further, he noted that such groups often exemplify the thought processes and commitment of those societies that have risen in reaction to contemporary ideologies of individualism and skepticism, and he concluded that religion may be on the rise again.

Conclusion

"Religious nationalism" is a term that is typically used to refer to a situation in which religion is used as a tool or veil to justify nationalistic attitudes and actions. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, religious nationalism has been on the rise, leading to increasing amounts of religious terrorism. This occurs not only in non-Western cultures and in clashes between Western and non-Western nations but also within Western countries themselves. The rise in religious nationalism can be attributed to many factors, among them the trend toward increasing globalization and the McWorld mentality, which has resulted in a backlash against secular governments and politics that do not represent the underlying morality of large groups within certain societies. As long as these conditions continue, it is likely that incidents of religious nationalism and religious terrorism will also continue. Research is needed to better understand the causes of these trends and to determine more legitimate ways for meeting the needs of society.

Terms & Concepts

Belief System: The combination of a person's ideology and worldview.

Culture: A complex system of meaning and behavior that is socially transmitted and defines a common way of life for a group or society. Culture includes the totality of behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of human work and the thoughts of the society or group.

Fundamentalism: A theological movement within many religions that rejects the tenets and influences of contemporary secular culture in order to return to the basics (i.e., fundamentals) of the faith, typically through the literal interpretation of scripture.

Globalization: The process of businesses and technologies spreading across the world, creating an interconnected global marketplace that operates outside the constraints of time zones or national boundaries. Although globalization means an expanded marketplace, products are typically adapted to fit the specific needs of each locality or culture to which they are marketed.

Ideology: A body of ideas and beliefs that reflects the social needs and aspirations of an individual, group, class, or culture.

Nationalism: The collective attitude of the members of a culture or society that arises from their identification with their nation. In this sense, a nation is usually defined in terms of ethnicity or culture. Nationalistic feelings typically imply that members believe that their primary allegiance is to the nation and that their nation is superior to others.

Postmodernism: A worldview dating to the latter half of the twentieth century that questions or rejects claims of absolute certainty and objective truth.

Religion: A personal or institutional system grounded in the belief in and reverence for a supernatural power, or powers, considered to have created and to govern the universe.

Religious Nationalism: Nationalism in which religion is used as a tool or veil to justify nationalistic attitudes and actions. Religious nationalism typically occurs in societies that do not have a high degree of religious pluralism or in which religion is closely associated with the national culture.

Religious Pluralism: A synonym for religious diversity, or the recognition that there are many different religions actively practiced within a country. A basic form of ecumenism in which adherents of different religions exchange dialogue and learn from each other without trying to proselytize. Acceptance that the beliefs of other religions are valid, if not necessarily true.

Sect: A distinct subgroup within a larger group united by common beliefs or interests. In religion, sects typically have separated from the larger denomination.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Terrorism: The use of violence against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing societies or governments. Acts of terrorism are often performed for ideological or political reasons and may be performed by an individual or by an organized group.

Worldview: A broad framework of ideas and beliefs used by an individual, class, or culture to interpret the data received from the world and determine the appropriate way of interacting with the world.

Bibliography

Barber, B. R. (1992, Mar). Jihad vs. McWorld. The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved June 4, 2008, from: http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199203/barber

Clark, R. (2012). Orthodoxy and nation-building: Nichifor Crainic and religious nationalism in 1920s Romania. Nationalities Papers, 40, 525–543. Retrieved October 30, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=78140876&site=ehost-live

Corey, A. V. (1991). Ensuring strength in each country: A challenge for corporate headquarters global human resource executives. Human Resource Planning, 14, 1-8. Retrieved April 2, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=7700826&site=ehost-live

Flashbacks: Coming to grips with jihad. (2001, Sep). Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved June 4, 2008, from: http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/jihad.htm

Hoppenbrouwers, F. (2002). Winds of change: Religious nationalism in a transformation context. Religion, State & Society, 30, 305-316. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=8760495&site=ehost-live.

Juergensmeyer, M. (1997). Terror mandated by God. Terrorism and Political Violence, 9, 16-23.

Misra, A. (2011). The missionary position: Christianity and politics of religious conversion in India. Nationalism & Ethnic Politics, 17, 361–381. Retrieved October 30, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=67652096&site=ehost-live

Remnick, D. (2013). The party faithful. New Yorker, 88, 38–49. Retrieved October 30, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=85470377&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Barber, B. R. (2002). Beyond Jihad vs. McWorld: On terrorism and the democratic realism. The Nation, 274, 11-18. Retrieved June 4, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=5902838&site=ehost-live

Juergensmeyer, M. (1996). The worldwide rise of religious nationalism. Journal of International Affairs, 50, 1-20. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9608250936&site=ehost-live.

Kunovich, R. M. (2003). Relative group size and religious nationalism in Europe. Conference Papers — American Sociological Association 2003 Annual Meeting, Atlanta, GA, 1-21. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=15923347&site=ehost-live

Omer, A., & Springs, J. A. (2013). Religious nationalism: A reference handbook. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved October 30, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database eBook Collection. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=544206&site=ehost-live