Virtue (philosophy)
Virtue, in the philosophy of normative ethics, refers to strong, consistent character traits that reflect a person's moral standing. These traits are generally viewed as positive and beneficial to individuals and their communities. For example, courage exemplifies a virtue that lies between fearfulness and recklessness. In virtue ethics, the morality of actions is assessed more by the character of the individual performing them than by the actions themselves or their consequences. The philosophy emphasizes the importance of developing virtuous character traits through introspection and self-improvement, rather than mere compliance with rules or societal norms.
Rooted in ancient philosophy and notably advanced by figures like Aristotle, virtue ethics posits that living virtuously leads to a flourishing life, or eudaimonia. While historically overshadowed by other ethical frameworks such as deontology and utilitarianism, virtue ethics has seen a resurgence as scholars explore its potential to foster moral development in a complex world. Despite its advantages, critics note that virtue ethics can lack clarity and may vary across cultures, leading to different interpretations of what constitutes virtuous behavior. Thus, while the cultivation of virtue is central to this philosophical approach, its application can raise challenges in diverse contexts.
Subject Terms
Virtue (philosophy)
Virtue is a concept in the philosophy of normative ethics, or the study of morally right and wrong conduct among people. A virtue is a strong and consistent character trait that reveals deep truths about a person and his or her moral standing. Virtues are generally considered good traits that have positive and helpful effects on the virtuous person and his or her family, friends, and community. One example of virtue is courage, which is a positive trait between the non-virtuous traits of fearfulness and recklessness. In this philosophy, virtuous thoughts and behaviors are the mark of moral goodness more so than adherence to rules or the consequences of any particular actions.
Basic Principles of Virtue Ethics
In philosophy, virtue ethics refers to the belief that the morality of an action should not be judged by the action itself as much as by the character of the person responsible for it. Virtuous people will generally act virtuously. Sometimes an action that may appear negative may actually have been done for virtuous reasons, making it an essentially virtuous action. The person performing the action should be judged based on his or her virtues and beliefs and the sum of past behaviors rather than simply on the action or its consequences.
By extension, virtue ethicists hold that the morally right approach to any situation is the approach that would be taken by a virtuous person in that situation. Because of that, people should focus less on circumstances, laws, duties, and other such factors and instead try to improve themselves from within to become virtuous people who will, by their nature, do what is morally best in whatever situations they encounter. In this way, the concept of virtue not only works to evaluate existing people and actions but also to inform people of how they should behave in the future. Virtue ethicists believe that virtuous role models and virtue-based education are more helpful than conformity to government rules, social norms, and so on.
Performing virtuous deeds, while good, is not in itself the main goal in virtue ethics. The main goal is to become a virtuous person, which means adopting deep-set virtuous character traits. This involves careful thought and introspection. To become truly moral, people must consider their own identities, the ideals they stand for, their goals as a human, and their plans for reaching those goals. According to virtue theories, people are not born instinctually virtuous or non-virtuous. Rather, they are like morally blank slates, and to become virtuous, they must rationally select, create, and permanently adopt patterns of virtuous behavior.
Fundamental to the philosophy is the question of what makes a virtue. Many theorists believe that some behaviors are naturally virtuous and are (or at least should be) accepted in all lands and cultures as positive behaviors. Traditionally, philosophers have accepted four major kinds of virtues. One is justice, or equal treatment of all people. Another is courage, or willingness to take chances and make sacrifices when necessary for the greater good. A third is temperance, or moderation of behavior and avoidance of excess. Finally, the fourth traditional virtue is prudence, or wisdom and cautiousness in making virtuous decisions.
Some modern theorists have updated the list somewhat, adding new factors such as self-respect and loyalty to loved ones. Generally, however, virtue theorists agree that virtues are admirable, reasonable traits that help to improve the world. Virtues also reduce vice, or negative behaviors often related to extreme or excessive behaviors.
Developments and Drawbacks
The roots of virtue philosophy can be traced back to ancient times when they were popularized by the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE). Aristotle's teachings proposed that ingrained character traits, rather than mere behaviors, were an essential part of a person's moral standing. Further, he believed that virtuous living was the best way to achieve eudaimonia, a state of happy, prosperous well-being. Later philosophers including Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274 CE) and David Hume (1711–1776 CE) also focused on the importance of virtue in ethics.
Despite its ancient origins and occasional revivals, the philosophy of virtue generally fell into disuse with the rise of authoritarian "law and order" principles which focused on rules and consequences. For much of modern history, people embraced other forms of normative ethics, mainly deontology (which emphasizes rules), utilitarianism (which emphasizes individual actions), and consequentialism (which emphasizes consequences of actions).
In recent generations, however, many scholars have questioned the effectiveness of these forms of ethics in light of the terrible wars, crimes, abuses, and other tragedies they have consistently failed to prevent. Some scholars, such as British philosopher Philippa Foot (1920–2010 CE), have reexamined virtue ethics and their possible restoration in the modern world. Scholars have pointed out that virtue ethics can play a positive role in society, helping people to improve themselves fundamentally rather than merely teaching them to obey rules and showing them the benefits of right actions rather than just the punishments for wrong actions.
Other philosophers have taken a more critical stance, however. For instance, virtue alone may not be compelling enough to make people follow their duties in society, thus necessitating laws and rules. In addition, a virtue-based system can be unclear. Merely asking citizens to "be virtuous" leaves a great deal of ambiguity. Often, the ethics themselves may be subjective. People in different cultures may have different ideas about desirable human behavior. For instance, in some cultures, chastity is considered virtuous, while in others, sexual expression and propagation are considered more preferable.
Bibliography
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