Industrial pollution control

Summary

Industries that have contributed historically to problems of air, water, and soil pollution are too many to name. Some obvious examples are mining and metallurgy, pharmaceuticals, and all industries processing petroleum. Because different industries use different methods to produce their products, different approaches must be adopted and adapted for controlling pollutants that result.

Definition and Basic Principles

Because various industries use chemicals or fossil fuels, by-products of such processes may occur as waste materials that are either emitted into the air or evacuated by means of polluted water drainage, sometimes into streams, lakes, or groundwater. Control of such pollutants requires both general legal guidelines, provided by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and control or recycling procedures responding to the specific nature of the environmental pollution problem identified.

Background and History

Ultimately, industrial pollution goes back to the origins of the Industrial Revolution in Europe and its migration to the United States in the nineteenth century. In the early Industrial Revolution, methods of production were considerably closer to nature than they would become when heavy industries, most driven by fossil fuel energy, became predominant. Although water-driven industrial machines, particularly in the developing textile industry, might have wasted or diverted water, truly harmful effects (mainly from increases in chemical additives) were slow in coming.

Legislative actions in the United States aiming at control of industrial pollution— starting with concerns about water quality—have been numerous and diverse. Early measures, the Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899 and organization of the Smoke Prevention Association in 1907, were followed by a very broad but important precedent: the Public Health Service Act of 1912. Over ensuing decades (except during the heavy emergency production period of World War II), particular industrial sectors became targets of pollution control laws, beginning with the Oil Pollution Act of 1924. Following World War II a major turning point came with the Water Pollution Control Act (WPCA) of 1948. In 1972, after multiple revisions beginning in 1961, when responsibility for the WPCA shifted to the new Department of Health, Education and Welfare, it became known as the Clean Water Act (CWA). This legislation established federally supervised procedures (originally to be overseen by the U.S. Surgeon General) for safeguarding the quality of water in public reservoirs, but also “interstate waters and [their] tributaries” as well as the “sanitary condition of surface and underground waters.”

The CWA came in the wake of President Kennedy's “Special Message to the Congress on Natural Resources” on February 23, 1961. After this date it was clear that questions of water pollution needed to be considered along with industrial pollution in the air and in surface and subsurface soils. In 1970, Congress created the EPA. At the same time, President Nixon signed an executive order establishing the National Industrial Pollution Control Council (NIPCC). This special council, which included several representatives of private industry, was to help coordinate responsibilities of the new EPA, with specific emphasis on matters of industrial pollution.

The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 represented a landmark in industrial pollution control. It shifted control emphasis from efforts to reduce the quantity of pollutants released by manufacturers to efforts to reduce pollution in earlier stages of industrial processing. This goal appeared in Section 6604, which created a new EPA Office of Pollution Prevention. Proponents of the 1990 laws argued that—in the long run—manufacturers stood to save money through “source reduction,” both by reducing quantities of expensive (and polluting) materials and replacing them by less costly nonpolluting substitute materials. Manufacturers could also avoid looming liability costs (in the form of fines). The 1990 law also encouraged finding ways to treat industrial waste products so that they might be recycled, either in internal production operations or for use by other manufacturers.

How It Works

Methods of pollution control differ from industry to industry. The selected industries below demonstrate several approaches to pollution problems in different key sectors.

Mining and Metallurgy. Issues of pollution occur in all mining and metallurgical industries. Iron mining and steel production operations face problems widely shared with many other industrial subsectors. Pollution in the steel industry begins at mining sites. Water that has been used to treat extracted iron ore— containing iron sulfide and iron pyrite—has to be disposed of somehow. If oxidation of such materials occurs, harmful secondary chemicals, including sulfuric acid and carbon dioxide, result. Acid water requires chemical neutralization, usually with limestone additives, followed by careful disposal of the resulting sludge.

The later stage leading to steel—when iron ore is reduced in blast furnaces—presents a different set of pollution control problems. Three pollutants are produced at this point. Air and water is polluted when a mixture of coke, iron ore, and calcium carbonate is blasted in extremely hot furnaces. Once the process yields a percentage of molten metal, masses of solid waste need to be disposed of.

It may be possible to extract some useful substances, mainly hydrocarbons, through condensation, and some coke oven gases can be recycled for fuel needs elsewhere. The net effect of blast furnace operations, however, remains a menace to the environment. Efforts have been made to treat iron ore without coke-burning blast furnaces. These include direct reduction of crushed iron ore using a hydrogen additive, which produces pig iron that is transformable into steel in less polluting electric furnaces. Another method—called the HIsmelt (high intensity smelting) process—uses force injected coal and oxygen to pre-reduce iron ore at an earlier stage.

Other problems arise when open hearth (or electric) furnaces and rolling mills are used to produce steel itself. Dangerous substances come from chemical by-products (called mill scale—a layer of metal oxides on new steel) in the rolling process. The steel industry has increasingly converted mill scale sludge into a concentrate that is over 80 percent iron, at the same time removing oil contaminants that—in earlier mill scale disposal processes—escaped into the air.

Control of pollution in the giant copper industry involves similar chemical by-products. Methods of control, however, particularly avoiding the need for high-temperature smelting, are different. Copper can be obtained by solvent-extraction means: Weak acid is percolated, both through ore and copper-bearing waste materials that would otherwise enter slag heaps. Copper ores containing sulfides, however, require newer forms of treatment that use environmentally friendly bacterial additions.

Cement Industry. In the early twenty-first century, the cement industry was ranked third among the industrial sources of pollution in the United States; it is also a major consumer of energy. After crushing limestone, shale, and sand components, mixed materials pass through high-temperature kilns. Here, a major pollutant, kiln dust, composed of at least eight polluting chemicals, enters the air.

Developing higher-efficiency machinery to filter kiln dust can help reduce its harmful chemical content. The cement industry does, however, have other commercially attractive options for disposal of this potential pollutant. Certain (not all) agricultural soils, for example, can be fertilized with kiln dust and it can also be used as a cattle grain supplement.

Pharmaceutical Industry. As a subbranch of the total chemical industry, the pharmaceutical industry must be as closely supervised as a potential polluter as it is for potentially dangerous contributions to commercial medicine. Some key processes, particularly fermentation of organic substances that yield antibiotics, produce harmful waste products. Some of these can be neutralized by careful calculation of biological additives to what are essentially pharmaceutical septic tanks.

In cases where wastes contain highly concentrated chemicals, neutralization (or adjustment of base-acid pH ratios) can be obtained via inorganic chemical additives. It should be noted, however, that such procedures—unless they are carefully managed by chemical experts—can produce other forms of risk, in some cases leading to fires or explosions.

Applications and Products

Because polluting chemicals are frequently combated by using other chemicals that neutralize their noxious effects, a number of potentially beneficial products may eventually come out of pollution control research. Any ongoing results of such specialized research are known to specialized chemists and as such remain beyond the ken of the general public.

By contrast, the public is becoming increasingly aware of much less high-tech applications that can make recycling not only ecologically beneficial but a significant contribution to middle levels of the economy. Most obvious are efforts to recycle paper products. Even though waste paper is biodegradable and therefore not highly polluting itself, industrial processes for reusing wastepaper not only save trees, they produce less pollution. Furthermore, a twenty-first-century innovative dry paper recycling technique reduces water consumption and transportation-related pollution significantly. This compact paper-making system produces dry fiber paper (DFP) using three technologies: defibration, binding, and forming.

A similar observation applies to the recycling of plastic materials, all of which are in one way or another by-products of petroleum. Even the simplest methods of recycling plastics, therefore, promise reduced levels of industrial pollution linked to extraction and processing of crude oil.

In metallurgy-related refuse, a 2021 study has found a method to produce nanomaterials from industrial mill scale wastes. Magnetic nanoadsorbent in powdered form can be extracted that can further be used in removing heavy metals in water decontamination plants. Moreover, bioleaching is being incorporated, especially in the industrial processing of chalcocite (a secondary copper sulfide ore). It uses oxidizing thermopile (microorganisms that usually grow beyond 45 degrees Celsius and survive in higher temperatures) bacteria under genera Acidithiobacillus, Leptospirillum, and Sulfobacillus. It is cost-effective and environmentally friendly as no harmful sulfur emissions are produced.

In terms of higher levels of technology, each time a major pollution problem occurs, scientists and engineers find themselves recruited to develop effective ways to deal with the specifics of each occurrence. The variety of submarine applications that were tried (some for the first time) during the months-long British Petroleum (BP) Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 is a prime example of this challenge. The oil spill, which began after a violent explosion and fire destabilized the drilling platform itself, illustrated another characteristic of pollution control demands: Highly specialized technical applications are used to prevent fire-producing disasters, but, if such fires occur, they must be controlled and extinguished with a minimum of pollution.

Finally, the BP oil spill, and even more dramatically, the 2011 nuclear reactor catastrophe in Fukushima, Japan, that followed the earthquake provided the public with unprecedented exposure to diverse scientific applications, some of which admittedly fell short of their stated goals.

Careers and Course Work

Anyone seeking a career in industrial pollution control should plan his or her course work so that essential scientific fields, especially chemistry and biology, are covered at the undergraduate level and narrowed to specific subareas in graduate course work. Students nearing the end of their university training may qualify for a number of federally funded short- or medium-term or summer internships, especially with the EPA. Although many openings are for clerical work, these temporary posts can provide valuable practical training in areas such as pollution policy analysis. Where applicants possess fairly advanced technical skills, work on EPA in-field projects is a possibility.

The EPA is the most important governmental agency involved in industrial pollution matters. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C., and has ten regional offices, all of which are equipped with laboratories staffed with trained experts, many of whom specialize in industrial pollution treatment.

One branch of the EPA, the Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention, offers an example of dovetailing between different specialized fields of training and employment. Its functions involve toxic substances (including pesticide manufacture), food and drug safety, and pollution prevention in general.

Needless to say, almost every industry, heavy and light, hires personnel trained to trace sources of pollution in their production process and to devise methods to control it. In the automobile industry, such control concerns are present at two levels: factory hazardous waste and lowering exhaust emissions from new models. As renewable energy sources are explored, like battery-operated electric vehicles (EVs), the concern may shift to battery reuse and recycling rather than exhaust emissions.

Most local governments staff offices responsible for pollution control. Among many possible examples, one can cite local air pollution control districts, such as the one created as early as 1971 in California's Glenn County (near Sacramento), which maintains close association with the state's department of agriculture. One of its key concerns is to maintain informational networks with local industries that may need technical consultation based on specific local resources of mixed private and governmental agencies.

Social Context and Future Prospects

In many formerly dominant industrial countries, especially the United States and European countries such as England, France, and Germany, economic and technological changes have made certain industrial subsectors much less important than they were up to the second half of the twentieth century. Metallurgy in general is an example of such changing conditions.

Even though some formerly very polluting heavy industries have reduced operations (or closed down entirely), lingering residue from earlier years of maximum production poses major health and safety problems for locally surrounding communities. Public reactions to such ecological dangers have in some cases led to citizen-based movements to oblige responsible powers, whether owners of industries themselves or governmental agencies, to clean up residual pollution.

A number of such movements could be cited, some in distant countries such as India (the Vasundhara research and policy advocacy group, for example, which supports initiatives to protect local communities from pollution and natural resource depletion) and Vietnam. More and more cases are surfacing in the United States. Some more or less spontaneous local organizations depend on the media to gain support. An example appeared in The New York Times of April 4, 2011: An interfaith local movement pit itself against a defunct chromium-producing plant in Jersey City, New Jersey. Other more structured bodies, such as Nexleaf Analytics (a private group working with the Center for Embedded Networked Sensing at University of California, Los Angeles), seek to use advanced technology to calculate levels of danger from various pollutants. Nexleaf provided electric cooking appliances in African villages in 2020 to reduce indoor pollution related to biomass cooking.

In most developed and developing societies, emphasis on recycling programs has begun to have an effect, not only on basic consumer patterns (either by reducing or eliminating entirely the use of certain industrial products that may end up as harmful additions to waste-disposal programs), but also on industries themselves. Examples of the latter may involve increased attention to ways in which polluting industrial by-products can be used in followup procedures that actually convert them to useful (and, in some cases, commercially valuable) by-products.

As technology advances, it is to be hoped that increasingly effective methods will be found to control (or even better, prevent) industrial pollution. For example, research should yield wider use of good chemicals to reduce the polluting effects of bad chemicals that must be used by some industrial manufacturers. Although most contributors to a special 1994–1995 issue of the Georgia Law Review dedicated to technical aspects of prevention, a main suggestion by all was that future cooperation between scientists, lawmakers, and industrial manufacturers is becoming increasingly critical.

Such cooperation depends, however, on legislators' willingness to remain firm in the face of pressures to water down control regulations. An example of this problem appeared in The New York Times of April 16, 2011, citing Republican Party efforts to cut back both the EPA's budget and governmental regulations controlling industrial wastewater disposal. Opponents of EPA controls argued that the extra costs involved represented an additional burden to industries and might force them to cut back economically critical operations. However, in 2021, EPA’s budget was increased and priority was given to vulnerable regions having higher pollution.

Bibliography

Bishop, Paul L. Pollution Prevention: Fundamentals and Practice. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2000.

Eckenfelder, W. Wesley. Industrial Water Pollution Control. 3d ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2000.

Hirschorn, Joel S. “Pollution Prevention Comes of Age.” Georgia Law Review 29 (1994–1995): 325–347.

Lund, Herbert F., ed. Industrial Pollution Control Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.

Ono, Yuya, et al. "Environmental Assessment of Innovative Paper Recycling Technology Using Product Lifecycle Perspectives." Resources, vol. 9, no. 3, MDPI, 2020, doi:10.3390/resources9030023. Accessed 3 Jul. 2021.

Predescu, Andra Mihaela, et al. "An Innovative Method of Converting Ferrous Mill Scale Wastes into Superparamagnetic Nanoadsorbents for Water Decontamination." Materials, vol. 14, no. 10, MDPI, May 2021, doi:10.3390/ma14102539. Accessed 3 Jul. 2021.

Rodgers, William H., Jr. “The National Industrial Pollution Control Council: Advise or Collude?” Boston College Law Review vol. 13, issue 4 (1972): 719–747.

Rodrigues, Michael L. M., et al. "Column Bioleaching of Fluoride-Containing Secondary Copper Sulfide Ores: Experiments With Sulfobacillus thermosulfidooxidans." Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, vol. 6, 2019, doi:10.3389/fbioe.2018.00183. Accessed 3 Jul. 2021.

Sell, Nancy J. Industrial Pollution Control: Issues and Techniques. 2d ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992.