Scientific theory
A scientific theory is a comprehensive explanation of a natural phenomenon that has been rigorously tested and supported by substantial evidence. It emerges from a systematic process known as the scientific method, which includes observing a phenomenon, formulating a hypothesis, predicting outcomes, and conducting experiments. When hypotheses are validated through repeated experimentation, a theory can be established, helping to make sense of large sets of observed data. Notable examples include Isaac Newton's theory of gravity and Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, both of which expanded upon previous knowledge and garnered broader understandings of gravitational forces.
Scientific theories differ from scientific laws; while laws describe specific relationships within observed data, theories provide a broader explanation by unifying various laws and observations. Although theories may evolve or be disproven as new data emerges, they are built upon extensive experimentation and scrutiny. The scientific community’s consensus plays a crucial role in the acceptance of a theory, as independent testing and observations can lead to further refinements. Over time, well-established theories like the big bang theory, atomic theory, and the germ theory of disease have gained significant credibility due to their predictive power and consistency with observed facts.
Subject Terms
Scientific theory
A scientific theory summarizes a hypothesis that has been tested repeatedly and is supported with evidence. A scientific theory explains the how and why of things. A scientific theory can only be formulated after the four steps of the scientific method have been completed. These steps include the observation of a phenomenon, the formulation of a hypothesis, predicting results, and performing experiments to prove these predictions. If the experiments prove the hypotheses, a theory is born. Scientific theories make sense of a large amount of observed data. Once confirmed, scientific theories may be used to help predict other phenomena.
When a scientific theory is accepted, it expands our general understanding of the universe. An example of a well-known, well-regarded scientific theory is Isaac Newton's theory of gravity, a theory that states that any two objects exert a gravitational force of attraction on each other. Newton conducted many experiments before he could formulate his theory. Scientific theories also help scientists explore unknown areas of science and test new hypotheses. Newton's work later contributed to the prevailing gravitational theories of Albert Einstein. The shift in gravitational theory demonstrates that no scientific theory is perfect; they may be altered or even disproven as new data is made apparent. Sometimes new discoveries improve established theories. Instances of disproved scientific theories are rare, but do exist. This does not mean scientific theories are just guesses or conjecture. An accepted scientific theory has the weight of many experiments and the best available data behind it.
Characteristics of a Theory
Since humans cannot garner large-scale knowledge of many natural processes, they rely on controlled observation to enhance their understanding of the world. Carefully studying specific areas of nature often leads to greater awareness of universal patterns. Sets of related observations are the basis of scientific theories. Though the results predicted during scientific experimentation can vary, the observable facts are measurable and consistent. A good theory is formed through the repeated testing of a hypothesis over several independent experiments. Theories receive increasing credit the more often they are proven through observation. Reliable scientific theories also unite previously unrelated phenomena.
It is important to distinguish between scientific laws and scientific theories. Laws are narrow in scope and unify small-scale relationships between observed information. Theories cover a larger scope and unify a number of laws. In simple terms, laws describe and theories explain. Newton's law allows us to calculate gravitational pull, but his theory of gravity tells us why an apple falls to Earth.
Examining the grander scheme of these collective laws can lead to the prediction of undiscovered laws. An example of how a law has informed a theory is Einstein's theory of relativity. Einstein drew from Newton's law of universal gravitation, which explains how gravity affects objects, while forming his own theory, which would prove to be superior. Einstein's theory of relativity improved upon Newton's work, applying its limited scope to his more general concept. Rather than accept Newton's idea of a central force of gravity, Einstein proposed a gravitational field that became the most successful theory of gravitation. Newton's equations are still used in modern scientific calculation and continue to inform various areas of science.
Scientific theories earn greater respect when the scientific community comes to a consensus regarding their validity. When groups of scientists independently test a theory, new observations may be made that improve the theory. Einstein's use of Newton's work on gravity led to a better understanding of gravitational law. Time is the most effective enhancer of scientific theory. The more time a theory is given, the more opportunities it has to be proven correct. Some examples of well-established scientific theories include the big bang theory, the theory of relativity, the atomic theory, the theory of evolution, and the germ theory of disease.
Notable Eras of Scientific Theory
The first half of the twentieth century saw an exceptional amount of scientific theorizing, particularly in physics and genetics. German physicist Max Planck originated quantum theory at the beginning of the century. By 1933 Einstein had expanded quantum theory to his photon theory of light, which states light contains individual particles. Earlier in the century, Einstein had proposed his famous theory of relativity, which accounts for a field of gravitation distorted by massive bodies in space. Atomic theory also found new footing in the early half of the century and eventually led to the development of the atomic bomb in World War II. In 1912 German meteorologist Alfred Wegener asserted the theory of continental drift. This theory proposes that all the land on Earth was once a single mass that Wegener referred to as Pangea. Scientists expanded on Gregor Mendel's genetic theory throughout the 1900s, leading to the discovery of DNA's structure.
A major observation concerning theoretical physics occurred in 2012. Observance of a particle consistent with what is known as the Higgs Boson, predicted by the Standard Model theory of physics, provided further evidence for this theory. The discovery led to a greater understanding of the origin of subatomic particles and why some particles of matter, such as electrons, have mass while others are massless. The theory received further credence when the scientists who discovered the Higgs were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics the following year. Only time will tell how important such current research will be to our understanding of the universe.
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