Self-preservation (survival instinct)

Self-preservation instinct, or survival instinct, is the tendency of a living organism to act in ways that increase the chance of survival and minimize the chance of injury. For example, hunger is an instinct that provides the organism with the nourishment it needs to live, grow, and reproduce. Fear causes the organism to want to escape from danger to a place of safety. Among thinking organisms, self-preservation may also be a strategy. For example, research shows that global climate change threatens industries, property, communities, and individuals, so finding ways to avoid these dangers and preserve life and lifestyles can become a priority for individuals, organizations, and governments. Developing a network of contacts related to one’s career may also be a self-preservation tactic.

Background

Researchers do not fully understand instinct in nature, but according to instinct theory it appears to be innate, meaning it does not have to be consciously learned. Evidence shows that genes can influence behavior, although to what extent is unknown. Some triggers in the environment—such as days growing shorter or longer—prompt instinctive behavior. For example, some organisms return to the place where they were born to lay eggs. Others migrate to a place they have never been, as monarch butterflies do when the year’s third generation flies south to central Mexico. However, while some behaviors are viewed as instinctive, they may provide potential that may not be realized without instruction. For example, some dog breeds are known for their herding ability, but must be trained to be useful. Maternal instinct is often viewed as a universal certainty, but many organisms abandon their young after birth and some, including some human mothers, kill their offspring. Angelfish will care for their fry, while guppies eat their own fry.

Charles Darwin (1809–82) wrote about instinct in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. However, his use of the term varied to mean, among other definitions, disposition, patterns of behavior that can be selectively bred, and feelings such as empathy. His writing opened the door to studies of similarities and differences in behaviors of humans and animals.

In his early work, neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) focused on biology when studying human behavior. He theorized that humans were motivated by two instincts: self-preservation and sexual instinct or reproduction. These instincts are the components of eros, the life instinct. He also developed theories about the psyche, which includes the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious, and three structural categories: the id, ego, and superego. The id encompasses urges to achieve immediate gratification, such as an infant’s desire for food. The id makes no allowances for situations or conditions that prevent gratification. Over time, however, individuals learn that obstacles prevent immediate gratification. To cope with the frustration and anxiety produced by delayed gratification, an individual develops the ego, which Freud called the reality principle. The ego recognizes that not all desires and demands will be satisfied immediately. As a method of self-preservation, the ego develops defense mechanisms to cope with the anxiety caused by delayed gratification. Rationalization, repression, denial, isolation, and displacement are a few defense mechanisms.

Other researchers developed various theories about instinct as well. In the early twentieth century, ethology, or the biological study of behavior, was popular among European zoologists, who theorized that behavior is genetically determined in a species. Many of their theories were unfounded, but evidence of a genetic component triggered by stimuli in the environment can be seen in the actions of many species. For example, European robins exhibit territorial behavior when they are exposed to red patches. Other birds will regurgitate food, as they would to feed their own chicks, in response to open-mouthed goldfish. The more complex, apparently genetic actions of other species is seen in many behaviors. For example, some species of termite build towers 15 feet (4.6 meters) high or work in complete darkness to construct elaborate tunnel systems that provide ventilation and air conditioning for the nest. While the progression of such behaviors over time may not be evident, researchers believe that many animal behaviors viewed as instincts evolved through natural selection.

Human ancestors’ survival instincts likely evolved through natural selection as well. For example, the survival response, fight-flight-freeze, is triggered by a perceived threat. In early human history, individuals who reacted quickly to danger were most likely to survive and therefore reproduce, passing down the trait of rapidly responding to threats.

Overview

Researchers in the field of evolutionary psychology study how the human mind has been shaped over eons by dangers and the drive to reproduce. Many behavioral traits acquired over hundreds of thousands of years still influence human behavior. For example, fear of the dark or caution when in a dark street is likely the result of prehistoric experiences, when the darkness could conceal a predator or other danger. Evidence of early humans’ behavioral traits has been found in studies about what the human brain is most likely to notice. Ancient humans had to pay attention to predators and prey to avoid danger and find food. Studies have found that modern human brains are still wired to pay more attention to humans and animals than to motionless objects. This phenomenon is called attention bias. Modern humans’ practices of sharing information and secrets also harkens back to prehistory. Cooperation among early humans was important to survival. It meant more protection and access to food and other supplies. In modern times, personal connections forged through sharing might lead to a promotion or other benefit.

Human behavior in stressful situations also has its roots in ancient history. Early humans developed survival instincts called fight-flight-freeze. Fight-or-flight refers to defensive reactions, either facing the threat and fighting it or fleeing from danger. Freezing is a form of reactive immobility or attentive immobility, in which the individual does not move but pays close attention while waiting to see what happens. All three responses involve physiological changes, meaning reactions in normal body functions such as breathing, in response to fear of a perceived threat. The threat may be real, such as a strange dog rushing toward a person, or conditioned. In the latter case, a sight or sound might trigger fear if it is related to a trauma. For example, someone who has been in a serious automobile accident may experience intense fear at the sound of a speeding car if the individual associates it with the trauma.

The fight and flight instincts automatically cause hormonal and physiological changes. The brain’s emotional and motivating center, the amygdala, perceives danger and sends signals to the hypothalamus. This region of the brain controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which comprises the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Fight-or-flight responses involve the sympathetic nervous system, while the parasympathetic nervous system drives the freezing response. In the fight-or-flight response, the ANS causes the body to instantly release adrenaline and the stress hormone cortisol and divert resources to the most important functions. The rapid chemical release immediately increases heart rate and respiration to deliver oxygen to major muscles that might be needed to fight or flee. This can cause the hands and feet to feel colder. Hearing becomes more acute. Peripheral vision increases and pupils dilate to improve vision and increase awareness of one’s surroundings. In preparing for possible injury, the ability to feel pain is temporarily reduced, and the blood becomes thicker so clotting can begin quickly. These heightened physiological changes usually are over in about twenty to thirty minutes.

Survival instincts served humans well when predatory animals or hostile neighbors were common threats, but in modern times the fight-flight-freeze response can have negative effects. Modern threats are less life threatening, and may include traffic, difficult customers, or unexpected job loss. While the sympathetic nervous system’s reaction to an oncoming truck can help an individual get out of the way quickly, it is of little use when a hostile shopper demands to speak to the manager and neither fighting nor fleeing is a realistic response. Worse still, fight-or-flight responses demand immediate action, while many modern problems should be tackled after calm consideration. Perceived dangers often do not have clear beginnings and endings, so individuals in stressful situations, such as high-pressure professions, may be in near-constant fight-or-flight states. The rapid heart rate and other physiological responses triggered by everyday stresses can indicate that the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are out of sync. Such chronic stress can negatively affect the immune system and exacerbate anxiety disorders.

Although fight-flight-freeze are not often the correct responses for humans in modern times, in the wild they remain viable options for many animals. Vast numbers of living organisms on Earth engage in a minute-by-minute effort to survive. Prey work to avoid predators while pursuing food and satisfying other needs to maintain life. Most predators also are prey to something in the food web. Among both wild and domestic animals, something that startles them provokes an immediate reaction; for example, a sleeping dog might respond to a slamming door by leaping awake and barking loudly.

As sometimes seen in humans, some animals respond to danger by freezing. This reaction is commonly seen in rabbits, opossums, and chickens. Animals also have other survival strategies. Some hide or use camouflage. Many species remain alert to danger by sleeping with their conscious minds while the subconscious is aware. Creatures with armor or a shell retract heads and legs or curl into a ball to protect the most vulnerable parts of the body. These tactics evolved far in the past but continue to serve many organisms.

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