Acadians

Acadians are descendants of French colonial settlers who inhabited a region in the Canadian Maritime Provinces in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Acadians were the first European settlers in Canada and established a cultural identity separate from the larger French population of what would later become Quebec. During the seventeenth century, the Acadia region was a source of contention between the British and the French, changing hands several times. In 1713, England finally gained control of the region, placing the Acadians under British rule. Four decades later, tired of the Acadians’ independent streak and worried about their loyalty, the British began to expel the Acadians from the Maritime provinces. Thousands were relocated to Britain, the American colonies, islands of the Caribbean, and even back to France. About four thousand eventually made their way to Louisiana where they became known as Cajuns. Over time, some Acadians were allowed to return to Canada and resettle in their old homeland. Today, Canadians of Acadian descent primarily reside in the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island.

Background

The first Europeans to arrive in North America were Norse Vikings who explored the coasts of Newfoundland around the year 1000. Although the Vikings established a short-lived settlement, the attempt ultimately failed. In 1497, British explorer John Cabot made landfalll in Labrador, Newfoundland, or Nova Scotia. Although he believed that he had reached Asia, Cabot nonetheless claimed the land for England. In 1524, Italian navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano, under contract with the French, sailed up the eastern coast of North America from North Carolina to Newfoundland. A decade later, French explorer Jacques Cartier sailed into the Gulf of St. Lawrence and up the St. Lawrence River as far as modern-day Quebec City and Montreal. Cartier’s expeditions provided the basis for France’s claim to the region.

On one of Cartier’s expeditions, he encountered members of the Iroquois-speaking Huron people, who gave him directions to a settlement near modern-day Quebec City. The Huron called the settlement kanata, a word meaning “village” in their language. Cartier attached the name to the entire region, which became known as Canada. In 1542, he tried to establish a French colony near the village, but that attempt soon failed. For the remainder of the sixteenth century, France did not attempt to establish any more settlements on the continent, although French fishermen did sail to the region, fishing its waters and trading with the indigenous peoples. Based on Cabot’s exploration, the British also maintained a claim to parts of Newfoundland, but they too did not attempt to colonize the region during the sixteenth century.

Overview

In 1604, explorers Pierre de Monts and Samuel de Champlain led the first French colonizing effort to North America. They established a settlement of about eighty people at Île Sainte-Croix on the St. Croix River off the northern coast of Maine. Their first winter in North America was brutal, and the colonists lost almost half their population. In 1605, the colony relocated across the Bay of Fundy to Port-Royal in modern-day Nova Scotia.

The colonists called the region Acadia, a name that likely had its origins in the explorations of Verrazzano in the 1520s. As Verrazzano sailed up the eastern coast of North America, he named the area above modern-day Virginia after the Greek province of Arcadia. The name, which means “idyllic place,” was meant to invoke the pastoral beauty of the Greek countryside. Over time, the name was listed on maps to describe other areas of the North American coastline. When de Monts and Champlain established the French colony at Port-Royale, they dropped the “r” and named the region Acadia. Another theory holds that the name could also have come from the language of the indigenous Mi’kmaq people who used the word akadie to refer to “fertile land.”

In 1608, Champlain journeyed farther inland up the St. Lawrence River and eventually built a fortress at the site of modern-day Quebec City. This area would eventually grow to become the heart of New France, the French colonial empire in North America. However, the Acadian colony did not experience the same political stability.

In 1607, the Acadian colonists temporarily relocated back to France but returned in 1610. That same year, they formed an alliance with the Mi’kmaq and Maliseet peoples. Three years later, British colonists from Virginia raided Acadia and forced out the French. In 1621, the British Crown officially granted the colony to Scottish settlers and renamed the region Nova Scotia, which is Latin for “New Scotland.” The Scottish occupied the region until 1632, when Britain and France agreed to a peace treaty, and Acadia was returned to the French.

For most of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Protestant Britain and Catholic France were embroiled in near-constant conflict along military, economic, and ideological grounds. North America often became the battleground for these conflicts. Acadia was again captured by the British in 1654, only to be returned to France in 1667. The same scenario played out in 1690, with British occupation lasting until 1697.

In the 1670s, the Acadians at Port-Royale began establishing other settlements in the region, spreading out across Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland. The Acadian population of just over 400 in 1671 grew to more than 1,400 in 1701 and more than 2,500 by 1711. The expansion was aided by a cooperative relationship with the Mi’kmaq, who helped the Acadians thrive in the sometimes-harsh climate. They made a living as farmers, hunters, fishermen, and fur-trappers. The Acadians also developed a distinct culture separate from the French colonists in Quebec and other parts of New France. They expressed a desire to remain neutral in the rivalry between Britain and France and even traded with British colonists in America.

In 1702, Britain, France, and Spain were once again involved in a war for dominance in Europe and North America. In 1710, the British seized Port-Royal and, by default, the Acadia region. Three years later, the Treaty of Utrecht ended the war, but Acadia was left in the hands of the British, who officially renamed it Nova Scotia. Although the British controlled the region, they did not attempt to fully colonize it. The Acadians were free to leave, but most chose to stay. The British demanded that they swear an oath of allegiance to the Crown, but the Acadians refused, agreeing only to promise neutrality in further conflicts. The French maintained control of Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Nova Scotia’s Cape Breton Island.

In 1754, the global Seven Year’s War between France and Britain erupted into the French and Indian War (1754–1763) in North America. British authorities questioned the loyalties of the Acadians and worried that they might join the war on the side of France. In 1755, the British began to arrest and deport the Acadians, sending an estimated six to seven thousand to England or the American colonies. In 1758, the remaining French-controlled territories in the region fell. About three thousand Acadians from Île Saint-Jean and Cape Breton were deported to France or French territory in the Caribbean. The war ended in 1763 with a victory by Great Britain. As a result of the peace terms, Britain claimed all French territory in modern-day Canada.

With the war over, the Acadians were technically free to return home; however, Britain had begun its own settlement program in the region in 1750, and many who did return found the land occupied. After the British lost the American colonies in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), thousands of British loyalists were relocated to the region. The returning Acadians were relegated to settlements in New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island, southwestern Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island.

About four thousand Acadians who were resettled in what became the southeastern United States were unhappy in their new home and traveled west. They settled in the Louisiana countryside west of New Orleans. At the time Louisiana was still a French territory, and developed a distinct mix of French, Spanish, and southern culture. They eventually became known as Cajuns, a name that grew out of a mispronunciation of Acadian.

Although now considered a minority in their homeland, the Acadians in Canada maintained their identity as French-speaking Catholics. Their population grew from about 8,000 in 1800 to about 140,000 by the start of the twentieth century. In the 1880s, a number of Acadian conventions established August 15 as National Acadian Day and created an official Acadian flag—a French blue, white, and red tricolor with a yellow star in the upper left to represent the Virgin Mary.

In the twentieth century, the Acadians continued the effort to keep their heritage alive, establishing several schools that provide education in French. In parts of the Maritime Provinces, people speak a distinct Acadian French dialect known as Chiac, which mixes words from English and old French. Thanks to the efforts of Acadian activists, the province of New Brunswick officially declared itself bilingual in 1969. According to the 2016 Canadian Census, 119,670 people identified as Acadian, although other estimates place their population as high as 500,000. Most live in Canada in locations like Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, with smaller populations in Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, and in Maine in the United States.

Although the Acadian people have been subjected to much historical turbulence, it remains a vibrant community. This is evidenced by the International Acadian Congress, or the Congrès mondial acadien. This reoccurring event, which continues into the mid-2020s, brings Acadians together from all corners of the world its members were dispersed. It is typically held on August 7, the National Day of Acadia.

Bibliography

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