Aging Theory: Modernization Theory
Aging Theory, particularly through the lens of Modernization Theory, examines how industrialization and modernization impact the lives of older adults. As societies transition from preindustrial to industrial frameworks, the roles and status of elders often diminish, resulting in increased marginalization and socioeconomic challenges. This shift leads to a decline in the authority of family elders, as modern societies increasingly rely on governmental structures for support, further distancing the elderly from their communities. The movement towards urbanization has also transformed familial structures from extended to nuclear families, which can leave older individuals feeling isolated.
Moreover, modernization has introduced ageism, as younger generations, equipped with advanced education and technological skills, may overlook the wisdom of their elders. Although there are improvements in healthcare and longevity, the rapid pace of change in job markets and societal expectations can render the skills of older adults obsolete. However, some argue that in postindustrial contexts, there may be a reversal of trends, with increased respect and integration of older adults into society. The experiences of aging individuals vary significantly based on their geographic and social contexts, highlighting the complex relationship between modernization and the aging process.
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Aging Theory: Modernization Theory
When applied to aging, modernization theory has much to say about the effects of modern society, specifically industrialization, on the quality of life for many older individuals. For example, the shift from preindustrial to industrial society automated many jobs previously performed by elders, changed the skills required for success in many careers, and necessitated higher education to acquire these skills. As a result, many elders have been marginalized and reduced in socioeconomic status. Further, because of industrialization, there has been a trend toward urbanization and a shift from extended families to nuclear ones. There has been a concurrent shift in the locus of authority from family elders to government officials, further marginalizing and decreasing the status of many elders as well as changing their source of support. However, although the observations of modernization theorists are of help in understanding the phenomenon of social aging in countries that are industrializing, the modernization perspective is not without its limitations when it comes to explaining the phenomenon of aging in postindustrial societies.
For social scientists, it is particularly interesting to hear firsthand accounts regarding the changes that industrialization, modernization, and information technology have -- and have not -- made in people's lives. In addition, it is interesting to observe the expectations of each generation and its progeny on each other not only as they age, but also as they become increasingly modernized. For example, geographic dispersal has created a need for the elderly to seek help from non-family members when they need daily assistance. In contrast, people who remained in one community could count on their friends, family, church, etc. to help them. The current geographic dispersal often makes it difficult for the elderly to remain in their homes.
In preindustrial societies, neighbors were widely dispersed, not particularly well-educated (with the highest level of education often a high school diploma), and focused on rural farming. In contrast, modern societies tend to be urban, literate, and industrial. In urban communities, there typically are sophisticated transportation systems (e.g., subway and bus systems). Families are usually nuclear in nature (e.g., a married couple and their unmarried children vs. the extended family of grandparents, parents, and children). Because of such characteristics of an urban society, the source of authority tends to shift from the elder in the home (because frequently there is no elder in the home) to the government or other official source.
Modernization Theory & Quality of Life
Modernization theory looks at the differences that industrialization and technological advances make in people's lives not only globally but also within a society. When applied to aging, modernization theory has much to say about the effects of industrialization, urbanization, and bureaucratization on the quality of life for older individuals. It would be difficult to argue (at least from a Western perspective) that industrialization and modernization have not made lives in the twenty-first century significantly better than they were in the past. Certainly e-mail is a quicker mode of communication than the Pony Express, and a microwave oven is an invaluable aid for the harried career person in search of a hot meal after a long day at work. On the other hand, from a social perspective, industrialization and modernization are not without their drawbacks.
Negative Effects of Industrialization
Industrialization, according to modernization theorists, has resulted in ageism and negative attitudes toward the aging for many reasons. The industrialization of society following the Industrial Revolution in the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth centuries brought with it new sources of power to perform tasks, a dependence on mechanization to produce goods and services, and new inventions to facilitate agricultural and industrial production. This led significant numbers of people to move to the cities where the jobs were, so populations became more centralized into urban centers. Because of this trend, many societies go through an irrevocable transition from an agrarian economy to an industrial one. Industrialization brings with it factory production, division of labor, and the concentration of industries and populations within certain geographical areas and urbanization. It becomes no longer necessary for a single individual or even a single family to entirely produce a single product or service.
With the advent of industrialization, societies increasingly no longer revolve around the family, and many workers leave home in order to work in factories or other centralized places of employment. As villages and other small communities become increasingly less independent and rely on each other for the exchange of goods and services, the family loses its unique position as a source of power and authority within society. Because of the technology required as an infrastructure for industrialization, there is a need for more formalized education for many jobs in order to teach its members about its technology and to advance its technology. Although in preindustrial society, sufficient education can often be provided in the home on or the job, the level of education required by industrialization typically requires a distinct social institution separate from the family. This effectively shifts the focus of knowledge and authority away from the family and its elders and onto other, "official" sources. Further, in many instances, the wisdom of age becomes insufficient to earn the respect of younger generations as the knowledge necessary to use new technology continues to advance. This causes a further reduction in social status for the elders. This gap is further widened by the increased literacy and education levels of younger generations, with children often being more educated than their parents. Elders thus experience further social segregation and lowered social status.
Elderly Welfare & Aging
As regards the welfare of older individuals, industrialization and modernization bring with them a number of characteristics that impact the aging process and the role of the elderly within society. Advancements both in medicine and medical technology enable people to live longer than was previously possible. In addition, the aging of the baby boom generation means that the population of older Americans will continue to rise for the near future. As a result, senior citizens in general are one of the fastest growing groups within American society and people over 100 years of age are the fastest growing group. Because people are living longer, healthier lives, many are continuing to work longer than did their parents. In addition, the birth rate has declined and has stayed down following the baby boom. All these facts mean that the proportion of elders within society has risen to a point where they are a disproportionate part of the population compared with levels of elders early in history. This also means that there are more old people (and will continue to be so for the foreseeable future) than society can support.
Elderly Employment
This attitude, however, in many ways is in direct contrast to the economic realities of the twenty-first century. As American society continues to enter the era of postindustrialization with its emphasis on the processing and control of information and the provision of services rather than a dependency on the manufacture of goods, an increasing number of urban jobs continue to be created, causing individuals and families to continue to migrate to the cities. Although advances in technology have made it possible to telecommute from home rather than go into a workplace, only 24 percent of American workers surveyed in 2004 reported working from home for at least part of the work week (Noonan & Glass, 2012). Further, many of the jobs in which elders were previously employed have become redundant and obsolete due to automation and technology. Postindustrial jobs tend to be based on new technologies (often developed by young innovators) that make the skills of many older individuals out of date; many elderly individuals are left unable to compete for newer jobs. Similarly, as technology continues to advance quickly, the job skills of many elders also quickly become out of date and the elders find themselves in a position where they either need to get further education or even start a new career if they want to stay employable. Even if they do change careers or acquire new skills, they may often experience a reduction in status as they no longer have a long history of experience in their career and are forced to compete with young people who are willing to work for lower wages and offer employers the potential for staying on the job longer, thereby making the cost of learning the requirements of a new job more cost effective. These factors combine to leave older generations increasingly dependent on their children even when they would prefer to be independent. As a result of these trends, older workers frequently choose retirement as the more attractive option. However, retirement brings with it reduced socioeconomic status not only because of the reduction of income due to living on one's retirement savings or Social Security, but also because of the reduced social status in a society where one is frequently defined by one's job title even in social situations.
Elderly Habitation
The migration to urban areas coupled with the contemporary tendency for married people to move out of their parents' home and start a nuclear family of their own results in increasing residential segregation where one generation is less able to help another generation. Younger people tend to also have more social mobility than their elders, a situation that often results in increased social distance between the generations and a concomitant inversion of status between them. Elders are often left behind in rural areas or deteriorating parts of the urban or suburban landscape as socially mobile younger generations move. This further isolates elders and contributes to their loss of status. With the contemporary emphasis on nuclear rather than extended families, elders can often be further isolated and reduced in status as they move to retirement communities or are placed in senior care facilities.
Although the observations of modernization theorists are of help in understanding the phenomenon of social aging in industrialized countries, the modernization perspective is not without its limitations when it comes to explaining the phenomenon of aging in preindustrialized societies. First, elders have been viewed in many ways throughout history irrespective of whether the society was industrial or preindustrial. Although in many preindustrial societies elders have been respected for their wisdom and given a preeminent position in society, in others they have been abandoned, marginalized, and even left to die. Further, the treatment of the elderly within preindustrial societies has not been consistent, and has varied according to race, gender, social class, and culture. In addition, some critics of modernization theory have argued that the changes in the way that elders are perceived in industrial societies occurred not as a result of industrialization and modernization, but before it. Further, contrary to the predictions of modernization theory, not all industrial or postindustrial societies marginalize their elders. In Japan, for example, the cultural emphasis on filial piety and respect for one's elders remains constant despite industrialization.
Industrialization is not the pinnacle of sociocultural development, and most societies continue to grow and involve. Postindustrial societies have an economy that is primarily based upon the processing and control of information and the provision of services rather than on the production of goods or other tangible products.
Some theorists have noted that in postindustrial society there is increased knowledge about the aging process and the capabilities of elders such that it diminishes the negative stereotypes held during the period of industrialization. According to these theorists, although industrialization brought about a decline in the status of the elderly and an increase in ageism, postindustrialization has reversed these trends with a concomitant increase in the status of the elderly and a decrease in ageism.
Applications
A British Case Study: Conditions According to Context
In reality, the experience of contemporary urbanized elders is far from uniform. Phillipson, Bernard, Phillips, and Ogg (2000), for example, examined the lives of older people living in different types of urban communities in Britain. Examining the lives of elders living in three different towns, the researchers found three different patterns of experiences: deprivation and marginalization within the inner city, deindustrialization and social change within a substantial metropolitan borough, and retreat from (or spreading of) urban centers through the process of suburbanization. The researchers found that the experience of elders living in these areas varied significantly according to the context in which they were aging.
Inner City
In the inner city situation, the lives of older people continued to be shaped by the pressures and tension of inner city life and struggled not to be marginalized or excluded from mainstream society. This community was characterized by the postwar shift from a working class community that was relatively well-ordered to one that currently experiences a great deal of fragmentation and social division.
Mainstream City
In more mainstream areas of the same city, however, and although downward shifts in social class were still evident, older individuals tended to be more prosperous than those living in the inner city. While the town studied continued to have an industrial base immediately following the Second World War, it also experienced a significant immigration of individuals from southern Asia. In the latter half of the twentieth century, the manufacturing industry that had supported the town began to decline, resulting in higher unemployment (requiring greater commuting distances) and an aging population.
Suburbs
The suburb studied in this research experienced a population increase as people migrated from the city in search of a different life style. In general, the suburb shows significantly less poverty and deprivation than either the inner city or mainstream city situations and, in fact, remains quite prosperous. Each of these areas had different social characteristics and offered different ways for older people to negotiate how they lived out their old age.
Conclusion
When applied to aging, modernization theory has much to say about the effects of industrialization and its concomitant changes in social structure and attitudes regarding the quality of life for older individuals. In many ways, industrialization -- with its shift to living in urban centers, higher emphasis on education, and shift in the locus of authority from elders within the family situation to strangers in the government -- have combined to increase ageism and marginalize older people. However, the continuing rise in the relative number of people over sixty-five, improvements in medical care and healthcare that increase life spans as well as decreases in birth rate all combine to create a situation in which older adults are becoming increasingly influential, particularly given the proclivity of baby boomers to fight for what they believe is right. With increased health and longevity, the young old are also pushing the parameters of what used to be considered normal behavior for elders, often keeping jobs and remaining active well into their later years. Although the observations of modernization theorists are of help in understanding the phenomenon of social aging in industrialized countries, the modernization perspective is not without its limitations when it comes to explaining the phenomenon of aging in preindustrialized societies.
Terms & Concepts
Ageism: Discrimination based on age or discrimination against the elderly.
Baby Boomer: An individual who was born during an unusual period of greatly increased birth rate following World War II.
Although there is no universally accepted span of years that comprise the baby boom, it is usually is considered to encompass the years between 1946 and the early 1960s.
Culture: A complex system of meaning and behavior that is socially transmitted and that defines a common way of life for a group or society. Culture includes the totality of behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of human work and thought from a society or group.
Industrialization: The use of mechanization to produce the economic goods and services within a society. Historically, industrialization is a society's transition between farm production and manufacturing production. Industrialization is associated with factory production, division of labor, and the concentration of industries and populations within certain geographical areas and urbanization.
Marginalization: To relegate a person or subgroup to the outer edge of the group (i.e., margin) by demonstrating through word or action that the person or subgroup is less important and less powerful than the rest of the group.
Modernization Theory: A sociological perspective of globalization which posits that less developed countries will eventually industrialize in the manner of more developed countries and that the process of modernization will gradually improve the quality of life of its members due to political and economic forces. Modernization is thought to affect virtually all countries that have been affected by technological change.
Postindustrial: The nature of a society whose economy is no longer dependent on the manufacture of goods (i.e., industrial), but is primarily based upon the processing and control of information and the provision of services.
Preindustrial: The nature of a society that has not yet been industrialized. Preindustrial societies tend to be small and family oriented. There are three types of preindustrial societies: hunting and gathering societies, horticultural societies, and agrarian societies.
Quality of Life: The sense of well-being that an individual feels regarding his/her life circumstances and life style; the ability to enjoy one's normal life activities. As opposed to standard of living, quality of life is both intangible and subjective.
Social Mobility: The movement of an individual between classes in a society over a period of time.
Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.
Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.
Status: A socially established position within a society or other social structure that carries with it a recognized level of prestige.
Bibliography
Chow, N., & Xue, B. (2011). Modernization and its impact on Chinese older people's perception of their own image and status. International Social Work, 54(6), 800-815. Retrieved November 6, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=66336145
Fourie, E. (2012). A future for the theory of multiple modernities: Insights from the new modernization theory. Social Science Information, 51(1), 52-69. Retrieved November 6, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true& db=sih&AN=73364659
Noonan, M. & Glass, J. (2012). Telecommuting: The hard truth about telecommuting. Monthly Labor Review. Retrieved November 6, 2013 from http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2012/06/art3full.pdf Palmore, E. B. (2005). Modernization Theory. In E. B.
Palmore, L. Branch, & D. K. Harris (eds.), Encyclopedia of Ageism. New York: Routledge, 231-232. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=22546656&site=ehost-live
Phillipson, C., Bernard, M., Phillips, J. & Ogg, J. (2000). The social context of ageing: Community, locality and ubanisation. In C. Phillipson, M. Benard, J. Phillips, & J. Ogg, Family and Community Life of Older People: Social Networks and Social Support in Three Urban Areas. New York: Routledge, 35-51. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16887639&site=ehost-live
Schaefer, R. T. (2002). Sociology: A brief introduction (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Suggested Reading
Arnhoff, F. N., Leon, H. V., & Lorge, I. (1964). Cross-cultural acceptance of stereotypes towards aging. Journal of Social Psychology, 63(1), 41-58. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16479460&site=ehost-live
Blancato, R. B. (2004). Advocacy and aging policy: The prognosis. Generations, 28(1), 65-59. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13579573&site=ehost-live
Childs, G., Goldstein, M. C., & Wangdui, P. (2011). Externally-resident daughters, social capital, and support for the elderly in rural Tibet. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology, 26(1), 1-22. Retrieved November 6, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=59438589
Gabriela, L. (2012). Social innovations in the context of modernization. Sociologia, 44(3), 291-313. Retrieved November 6, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=77368439
Johnson, M. & Curran, J. Jr. (1973). Aging and modernization. Contempoary Sociology, 2(5), 530-532. Retrieved July 7, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13326870&site=ehost-live