Aging Theory: Social Conflict Analysis

The prominent theories of aging emphasize the involvement of the aging or elder individual in social activities and engagement in society. The social conflict perspective, however, criticizes these approaches because they do not take into account the effect of social structures, social stratification, and class on patterns of aging. Research has found that individuals from the upper classes tend to have better health and vigor and be less likely to be dependent in their later years than are individuals from the lower classes. More affluent persons typically have better or even greater access to healthcare, consistent access to food and medication, and can afford to have the help they need for necessary everyday activities than less affluent persons. Research has also linked incidence of physical disease in older persons with their socioeconomic status. However, contrary to the conflict perspective, the stigmatization of the aging and elderly occurs not only in capitalist societies but in socialist ones as well. The social conflict perspective also tends to oversimplify the complex relationship between welfare benefits, economic growth, and the labor market for the aging population.

Keywords Activity Theory; Age Stratification; Ageism; Baby Boomer; Class; Conflict Perspective; Disengagement Theory; Social Stratification; Society; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Status; Structural Functionalism; Symbolic Interactionism

Aging & Elderly Issues > Aging Theory: Social Conflict Analysis

Overview

Structural-Functionalist & Symbolic Interactionist Views of Aging

There are a number sociological theories of aging that vary according to the perspective through which the phenomenon of aging is viewed. From the structural functionalist perspective, older people and society go through a period during which relationships are severed such as retiring from a job, decreasing community involvement, and reducing one's social networks. According to disengagement theory, this process is good for both the individual and for society. Individuals are benefited because this disengagement allows them to focus on end-of-life concerns. Society is benefited because it allows the next generation to take over the societal roles in a smooth manner that supports societal stability. In this view, aging and elderly individuals become increasingly disengaged from society, have reduced social roles, and become socially isolated. Partially in reaction to this theory, the symbolic interaction perspective on aging advocates that social interaction and activity are good both for the individual and for society. In activity theory, it is posited that older adults who remain the most active are the most well-adjusted. This theory posits that society benefits from older adults who continue to be contributing, valued members of society. From the point of view of activity theory and the symbolic interactionist perspective, older people need to continue to be active, although their social roles may change. As opposed to being socially isolated, this view sees the elderly as continuing to be involved with others, and often creating new networks (Schaefer, 2002).

However, neither theory completely explains the reality of the sociology of aging and elderly adults. Research findings about the positive effects of activity and social interaction well into later years have discredited disengagement theory to a large degree. Yet, activity theory, too, is not without its flaws. Although a great deal of research has been done that supports the positive relationship between social interaction and activity on the well-being of older adults, many of the details about why this occurs and under what conditions are still missing.

Social Conflict Theory

Social conflict theorists also criticize both these theories because they fail to consider the impact of social structure on patterns of aging. For example, conflict theorists point out that neither disengagement theory nor activity theory explains why the level or type of social interaction needs to change in old age, and criticize these theories because they fail to take into account the effects of social stratification and class on elderly persons (Turner, 1989).

The Class Advantage

In general, individuals who are in the upper classes have better health and vigor and are less likely to be dependent in their later years than are individuals from the lower classes. Although death comes to everyone and money cannot put off this eventuality, more affluent persons typically have better access to healthcare, consistent access to food and medication, and can afford to have the help they need for necessary everyday activities (e.g., meal preparation, shopping, housecleaning) than less affluent persons who often have to do these things themselves or do without them. Further, working class individuals are often at higher risk for job-related injuries or illnesses that make their later years more difficult or even shorten their lives. Although more affluent older persons may not see any change in their life styles except those necessitated by health-related issues, less affluent people may have to learn to live within the constraints of a fixed income and depend heavily on Social Security and Medicare. In the best of times, this is a less than ideal situation. However, in times of inflation and economic turmoil, this can be particularly difficult and seniors may find it a struggle just to pay for food, utilities, and the other necessities of life.

Conflict theorists also take note of the age stratification that can be observed in society. Older people are often the victims of ageism and unable to get jobs with the same income level as they had in their youth or forced to live on the fixed income from Social Security or a pension. As a result, they often are reduced in social status. In general, conflict theorists see the elderly as being victims of social stratification and capitalism (Turner, 1989).

Further Insights

Public Policy & Assisting the Elderly

Although caring for one's elders has always been a social concern, it is becoming increasingly so now that the baby boom generation is reaching retirement age. With modern improvements in medicine and health care, people are living longer than ever before. As of 2002, people over 100 years of age constitute the country's fastest-growing age group. As the number of individuals considered as senior citizens experiences population increases from both ends, it becomes increasingly incumbent upon social scientists to better understand the issues related to aging. In this regard, social conflict theory has a valid criticism of previous work in the area. General theories and high level observations about the social realities around aging are of interest. However, there are practical realities to be addressed as well. Although some of these need to be addressed politically (e.g., Social Security, Medicare), it is only if social scientists do the work necessary to understand the needs of this growing segment of the population that politicians will be able to develop and implement policy that will meet these needs of older Americans. Whether or not people need to disengage from society or re-engage is not the only social issue of aging and, arguably, may not even be the central issue. On a more practical level, work needs to be done to better understand the social implications of old age (Turner, 1989).

If one is not yet approaching the age of Medicare and Social Security benefits, it is easy to dismiss the problems of age stratification, lowered socioeconomic status, and reduced income as acceptable side effects of old age. Some people assume that elders would and should be taken care of by the family and that Social Security benefits (particularly in conjunction with retirement packages and pensions) and Medicare should be equal to the task of maintaining a comfortable life style for older people. However, many of those in the baby boom generation who took care of their parents do not have children to take care of them. Although Medicare benefits are regularly adjusted in an effort to better reflect the rising cost of health care, they are often insufficient for the medical needs of elders who now need more health care than earlier in their lives. Problems with the Social Security system make many people question whether or not it will still be viable when the majority of baby boomers are eligible for benefits, or if their children will see any benefits at all. Such concerns are important not only from a social conflict perspective, but also from the point of view of social justice. Research has found that older people from minority groups or who are socioeconomically disadvantaged are up to three times more likely to experience disability and concomitant physical, cognitive, and sensory limitations than other groups. Further, those elders who report such limitations have on average medical bills that are three times higher than other groups no matter their race or socioeconomic status. Half of the medical expenditures for people with disabilities are paid for by public health programs (Schoeni, Martin, Andreski, & Freedman, 2005, p. 2065).

SES & Disability in the Elderly

According to Schoeni, Martin, Andreski, and Freedman (2005), recent statistics indicate that disability among older Americans is declining. During the 1980s and 1990s, average annual declines in limitations to performing instrumental activities of daily living (e.g., shopping, cleaning, preparing meals) declined between 0.4 and 2.7 percent. Trends regarding limitations in activities of daily living (e.g., bathing, walking, feeding oneself), however, were inconsistent. During the latter part of the 1990s, another study found that declines in abilities in these areas for individuals 70 years of age or older declined between 1.0 and 2.5 percent per year. While this is good news, it does not take into account differences in disability based on socioeconomic status, one area of concern of particular interest to social conflict theorists. Yet another study showed that between 1988 and 2004, older Americans had increased rates of disabilities that affected their basic daily living activities, instrumental activities, and mobility (Seeman, Merkin, Crimmins & Karlamangla, 2010).

Schoeni, Martin, Andreski, and Freedman (2005) used data from the 1982-2002 National Health Interview Surveys to examine the persistence and growth in socioeconomic disparities in disability among the elderly in the United States. The National Health Interview Survey is a repeated survey of a cross section of non-institutionalized people in the United States. The annual survey samples approximately 8,000 adults aged 70 or older. Two questions were asked on the survey concerning issues of disability. One was a general question asking the respondent to indicate whether s/he experienced any impairment or health problem that resulting in the need for help from others for personal care needs including eating, bathing, dressing, or getting around the home (i.e., activities of daily living). Respondents who answered "no" to this question were then asked a follow up question regarding whether or not they had any impairment that required them to have help for instrumental activities of daily living including everyday household chores, doing necessary business, shopping, or getting around for other purposes. Responses were statistically analyzed to determine disparities between race/ethnicity, education, and income groups.

The results of the data analysis revealed that the proportion of the people 70 years old or older in the United States who report a disability has declined significantly over the past two decades from 22.7 to 15.5 percent. This decline was largely caused by a decline in the number of people reporting problems with instrumental activities of daily living but without disabilities with the activities of daily living. The proportion of the population sampled in this survey that had difficulties with the activities of daily living showed very little change. However, these results were not equally distributed over all subgroups in the sample. Those people aged 70 or older who were in the lowest quartile of income had virtually no improvement in their ability status. This means that the socioeconomic gap in the prevalence of disability actually became larger in favor of the advantaged group during the time period between 1982 and 2002 (Schoeni, Martin, Andreski, & Freedman, 2005). In the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Health Interview Survey, 2011, 64 percent of respondents aged sixty-five and older with Medicaid and Medicare coverage reported one or more physical difficulties compared to 36 percent of respondents in the same age cohort who had private insurance and 38 percent of those with Medicare only (Schiller, Lucas, Peregoy, & NCHS, 2012).

SES & Disease in the Elderly

Research has found disparities across socioeconomic status in the well-being of older adults in more than day to day activities associated with daily living. For example, research in Britain, Canada, and the United States has shown that patients from affluent areas have better survival rates for various types of cancer (including lung, breast, colorectal, bladder, prostate, uterine, and cervical) than do those who come from economically deprived areas. For example, Reyes-Ortiz, Goodwin, Freeman, and Kuo (2006) investigated the relationship between socioeconomic status and survival in older patients with melanoma (a serious and potentially lethal form of skin cancer). Data for the study were obtained from existing linked databases that provided information on the variables of interest. Subjects comprised 23,068 individuals aged 65 or better who had received a new diagnosis of melanoma in the period between 1988 and 1999. The results of the statistical analysis indicated that socioeconomic status is significantly related to survival from melanoma. Even when adjusted for other variables such as stage of the melanoma at diagnosis, comorbidity index, and characteristics of the tumor, the results suggest that individuals living in low income areas have lower chances of survival than individuals from other areas. The study found that there was a relationship between income, ethnicity, and melanoma survival rate; that non-whites had a lower survival rates than whites, particularly if they lived in low income areas. At greatest risk, according to this study, were individuals who were older, male, and unmarried. The authors suggest that the relationship between age and survival rate may be due to the fact that older patients typically are not screened for melanoma as often as younger patients and, therefore, often diagnosed at a later stage than younger patients (Reyes-Ortiz, Goodwin, Freeman, & Kuo, 2006).

Contrary to the social conflict interpretation of such findings, the relationship between socioeconomic status and the problems of old age may not necessarily be a causative one. For example, Sundquist, Johansson, Qvist, and Sundquist (2005) did a twelve-year follow up study to investigate the relationship between social class and coronary heart disease. The study examined the association of socioeconomic status and incidence of coronary heart disease in adults aged 65 or older (the retirement age in Sweden). The study also explored whether the relationship was related to other risk factors including age, sex, level of physical activity, smoking, body mass index, diabetes, and hypertension. Data used in the study came from the Swedish Annual Level-of-Living Survey. These data were linked to Swedish National Hospital Discharge Register and the Cause-of-Death Register. The study followed participants until their first coronary heart disease event, death, or the end of the data collection phase study. Socioeconomic status was defined for purposes of the study as the individual's occupational classification at retirement: manual laborer, lower level employee, middle level employee or professional, or self-employed workers and farmers. The results of the analysis indicated that low socioeconomic status was a significant predictor of coronary heart disease for retired persons aged 65 years or older. This relationship disappeared after the data were adjusted for various other risk factors for coronary heart disease. Although these risk factors were more prevalent in the lower socioeconomic status levels than in the upper levels, this relationship was caused prior to retirement. The habits of the lowest socioeconomic classes may not necessarily be picked up by elders who become reduced in status in later years. The relationship between class structure, aging, and the problems of the elderly are still not well understood.

Viewpoints

The Pitfalls of Conflict Theory of Aging

Although the social conflict perspective points out important omissions from other sociological theories of aging including activity theory and disengagement theory, it, too, is not without its flaws. First, the conflict perspective, with its Marxist roots, views the stigmatization of the elderly to be an artifact of capitalism. In actuality, however, such stigmatization has been found in noncapitalist societies as well and over a long historical period. Second, research evidence suggests that attitudes toward the elderly in socialist societies are not substantially different from those in capitalist societies, despite the predictions of the social conflict perspective. Third, the social conflict perspective tends to oversimplify the complex relationship between welfare benefits, economic growth, and the labor market for the aging population. The question of aging in capitalist societies also encompasses issues of citizenship, status politics, and welfare. The stigmatization of the elderly and negative attitudes toward aging cannot be explained simply in terms of the unique economic and political needs of capitalist societies.

The social conflict perspective rightly illuminates gaps in the theories of aging proffered by structural functionalists and symbolic interactionists. Rather than looking at issues of activity or engagement, social conflict theorists look at issues related to the structure of society and how these impact attitudes toward aging and elderly individuals. In particular, social conflict theorists look at the effects of age stratification on the elderly, a reality that affects living conditions, as well as health and welfare. However, like activity theory and disengagement theory, the social conflict perspective on aging looks at only part of the puzzle of the place of aging and elderly adults within society and how the treatment of these individuals by society affects their health and welfare. On their own, none of these theories is complete. Further research is needed to better understand the relationship between aging and social interaction, social roles, socioeconomic status, and the health and welfare of older adults. Any theory that does not attempt to look at the bigger picture rather than a narrow, predefined perspective is unlikely to adequately and accurately explain these relationships.

Terms & Concepts

Activity Theory: A symbolic interactionist perspective on aging that posits that those elderly individuals who remain active will be more well-adjusted.

Age Stratification: The hierarchical ranking of groups by age within society. In age stratification, different social roles are ascribed to individuals during different periods in their lives. These roles are not necessarily based on their physical capabilities and constraints at different times in their lives.

Ageism: Discrimination based on age or discrimination against the elderly.

Baby Boomer: An individual who was born during an unusual period of greatly increased birth rate following World War II. Although there is no universally accepted span of years that comprise the baby boom, it is usually is considered to encompass the years between 1946 and the early 1960s. However, the definition of both the start and end dates for the time period does vary slightly from researcher to researcher.

Class: A group of people or stratum within society that shares a similar level of wealth and income and that have access to the same resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social class is the stratum of the group within the society. (See also: social stratification)

Conflict Perspective: An approach to analyzing social behavior that is based on the assumption that social behavior is best explained and understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.

Disengagement Theory: A functionalist theory of aging that posits that society and the individual mutually severs many relationships during the aging process.

Social Interaction: The changing series of social actions between individuals or groups that modify their reactions based on the actions of the other party. Social interactions are events to which the participants attach meaning. Social interaction may be planned or accidental, regular or occasional.

Social Role: A set of expectations placed on members of a group of people who with a given social position or status within society.

Social Stratification: A relatively fixed hierarchical organization of a society in which entire subgroups are ranked according to social class. These divisions are marked by differences in economic rewards and power within the society and different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social stratification is a system of structured social inequality.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.

Status: A socially established position within a society or other social structure that carries with it a recognized level of prestige.

Structural Functionalism: A theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of social order and the relationship between the various parts (structures) in society and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole.

Symbolic Interactionism: A theory that assumes that one's self-concept is created through the interpretation of the symbolic gestures, words, actions, and appearances of others as observed during social interactions.

Bibliography

Luong, G., Charles, S. T., & Fingerman, K. L. (2011). Better with age: Social relationships across adulthood. Journal Of Social & Personal Relationships, 28, 9-23. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=58766182

Mendes, F. (2013). Active ageing: A right or a duty?. Health Sociology Review, 22, 174-185. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89768704

Reyes-Ortiz, Goodwin, Freeman, & Kuo. (2006). Socioeconomic status and survival in older patients with melanoma. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 54 , 1758-1764. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=22952874&site=ehost-live

Schaefer, R. T. (2002). Sociology: A brief introduction (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Schiller J. S., Lucas J. W., Peregoy J. A., & National Center for Health Statistics. (2012). Summary health statistics for U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2011. Vital and Health Statistics 10. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr%5F10/sr10%5F256.pdf

Schoeni, R. F., Martin, L. G., Andreski, P. M., & Freedman, V. A. (2005). Persistent and growing socioeconomic disparities in disability among the elderly: 1982-2002. American Journal of Public Health, 95 , 2065-2070. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=18807328&site=ehost-live

Sundquist, K., Johansson, S. Qvist, J., & Sundquist, J. (2005). Does occupational social class predict coronary heart disease after retirement? A 12-year follow-up study in Sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 33 , 447-454. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=19063594&site=ehost-live

Turner, B. S. (1989). Ageing, status politics and sociological theory. The British Journal of Sociology, 40 , 588-606. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=6790138&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Binstock, R. H. (2005). Old-age policies, politics, and ageism. Generations, 29 , 73-78. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=19399887&site=ehost-live

D'Amato, T. J. (1987). Factors causing variation in life satisfaction of the elderly. National Journal of Sociology, 1 , 54-72. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=11566024&site=ehost-live

Demeter, S., Reed, M., Lix, L, MacWilliam, L, & Leslie, W. D. (2005, 8 Nov). Socioeconomic status and the utilization of diagnostic imagining in an urban setting. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 173 , 1173-1177. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=18708997&site=ehost-live

Fagerström, J., & Aartsen, M. (2013). Successful ageing and its relationship to contemporary norms. Recherches Sociologiques Et Anthropologiques, 44, 51-73. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90088489

Kets de Vries, M. F. R. (1979). Is there life after retirement? California Management Review, 22 , 69-76. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=4760083&site=ehost-live

Quesnel-Vallé, A. (2004). Is it really worse to have public health insurance than to have no insurance at all? Health insurance and adult health in the United States. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45 , 376-392. Retrieved 2 July 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16666365&site=ehost-live .FT.-van Dyk, S., Lessenich, S., Denninger, T., & Richter, A. (2013). The many meanings of "active ageing." Recherches Sociologiques Et Anthropologiques, 44, 97-115. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90088491