Anchored Instruction

Anchored instruction is a technology based problem solving teaching method. The method engages students in a problem solving process that is tied, or anchored, to a realistic technology-based video presentation. Technology is used to present the story or anchor because it is seen as a vehicle to engage students in the higher order thinking skills they will need to solve the problems. Anchored instruction falls within the social constructivist paradigm, and is closely associated with situated learning. Anchored instruction is more relevant for middle school students, since the problems are difficult but not as complex as true problem-based learning (PBL). An important example of anchored instruction is the Jasper Woodbury series, which was designed by the Cognition and Technology Group (CTGV) at Vanderbilt University in 1992. The Woodbury Series is no longer maintained, but there are still a few current educational videos adapted to anchored instruction.

Keywords Behaviorism; Constructivism; Educational technology; Learning Disability; Macro contexts; Metacognition; Middle school; No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB); Problem-Based Learning; Scaffolding; Situated learning

Technology in Education > Anchored Instruction

Overview

Anchored instruction engages students in a problem solving process that is tied or anchored to a realistic technology-based presentation. The instruction is anchored to a story, not to a lecture, and video clips provide students with relevant details to help solve the problem (Chen, nd; Jasper, 1992). The stories, or anchors, are designed to "motivate students and help them learn to think and reason about important, complex problems" (CTGV, 1992a, p. 291). In addition, video technology is used to present the story because it is seen as a vehicle to engage students in the higher order thinking skills they will need to solve the problems (Love, 2004; Shyu, 1999). Also, video results in superior memory because information is dual-coded as both verbal and nonverbal representations (Journal of Special Education Technology, 26, 2011).

Roots in Social Constructivism

Anchored instruction falls within the social constructivist paradigm, and it is closely associated with situated learning (Kearsley, 1999). Constructivism is a broad framework and philosophy of education where learning is an active process of knowledge construction. Constructivism is often contrasted with objectivist or behaviorist models (Hofstetter, 1997). In behaviorism, learning is a process of conditioning and the mind is seen as an empty vessel that the teacher passively fills—it is a teacher-centered approach. On the other hand, constructivist approaches are often described as learner-centered because the learner has control over the learning process, and students actively construct knowledge and are encouraged to develop metacognitive processes. Learner control is a critical aspect of the anchored instruction model (Cena & Mitchell, 1998). Furthermore, in anchored instruction, students actively engage in critical thinking to solve the problems presented in the story anchor (Oliver, 1999).

Macro Contexts

Anchored instruction is more relevant for middle school students, since the problems are difficult but not as complex as true problem-based learning (PBL). However, anchored instruction sets the stage for PBL at the secondary and post-secondary levels (Jasper, 1992). The anchored environments are sometimes referred to as macro-contexts because students have to work out a solution to a complex set of connected problems (CTGV, 1992a). It is important when selecting and designing the macro-context that students, who are novices, are able to use some of their available knowledge just like experts. Experts can learn to adjust their thinking to solve a problem.

In a 2011 study of high school students, data showed a highly significant difference between students who studied using the anchored instruction and the teacher-centered. Students said the anchored instruction video made their class interesting and interactive, enabled them to study involving realistic situation, motivated them to learn on their own, promoted collaboration, allowed them to learn about environment aside from statistics, provided them episodic memory cues, and changed their perception of statistics. The students also said that they liked the new approach in learning compared to their usual classwork (Prado & Gravoso, 2011). Finally, cooperative learning is an important component of anchored instruction, but it is important to recognize that teachers may need to provide scaffolding to avoid the pitfalls of group work (CTGV, 1992a).

Origins of Anchored Instruction

Dr. John D. Bransford is credited with developing the anchored instruction theory while working at the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) (Kearsley, 1999). From 1984 to 1999, Dr. Bransford was the director of the Learning Technology Center at Vanderbilt, and under his leadership the CTGV grew from 7 people the first year to more than 100 in 1999 (Bransford, 2006). Some of the technology-based programs developed during that time include the Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series in Mathematics, the Scientists in Action Series, and the Little Planet Literacy Series. Many of the programs are being used in schools around the globe.

Seven Design Principles

There are seven design principles used with the anchored instruction model (Foster, 2004; Crews, Biswas, Goldman & Bransford, 1997):

• Anchored instruction is a generative learning format because learners are motivated to construct or produce a solution to the open-ended problem in the story.

• Anchored instruction is a video based presentation that enhances textbook learning with audio, animation, graphics, simulation, color, and realism.

• The narrative format of anchored instruction makes it more authentic and the realistic storyline enriches the context of the characters and events.

• The complexity of the problem demands the learner's full attention and also stimulates their curiosity to solve the problem.

• Data are embedded in the story so that learners must explore the content; students must also learn how to identify pertinent data because not all of the data in the story are necessary to solve the problem.

• Learners are given opportunities to transfer knowledge from one subject area, such as algebra, to other settings in the same subject area.

• There are links to other areas of study within the storyline so that learning can occur across the curriculum (Foster, 2004).

Applications

A frequently mentioned anchored instruction program is the Jasper Woodbury Series, developed by CTGV in 1992 (Jasper, 1992). The video-based segments in the Jasper Series are approximately 15 to 20 minutes in length, and designed to pose problems that grade 5+ students must solve through reasoning and effective communication. The students must solve the problems on their own before they are allowed to see how the characters in the video solved the problem (CTGV, 1992a). The problems are similar to traditional word problems in mathematics instruction, but are not as structured or explicit (Solving, nd).

Example Problems

A Simple Problem: Journey to Cedar Creek

In the story "Journey to Cedar Creek," Jasper eagerly reads his newspaper and scours the ads for used boats. He finds a boat for sale that interests him, and he begins making plans to take a trip to Cedar Creek to see the boat. Students are given various bits of information throughout the video about distances, weather conditions, when the sun will set, the price of gas, how much cash Jasper has, how big his gas tank is, and the approximate miles per gallon his outboard motor will get. During the video small problems come up that change the parameters of the trip planning. For example, along the way the shear pin in Jasper's outboard motor breaks, and he has to have it repaired for a modest price at Dixon's Boat Repair. Even though Mr. Dixon did not charge a lot of money, Jasper now has a potential cash flow problem and wonders whether he has enough money for gas to get to Cedar Creek and back again. He also wonders if he has time to complete his trip before the sun sets.

After the students have finished watching the video, they are asked two questions: when should Jasper leave for home, and can he make it without running out of fuel? Since there is only one route Jasper can take, one mode of transportation, and a set budget, this is a relatively simple problem for the students to solve and involves approximately 15 steps (Jasper, 1992). In addition to the main problem, CTGV provides analogous and extension problems so that the teacher can focus more of the students' attention on the mathematics in the Jasper story. For example, analogous problems focus on the time and fuel sub-problems in the context of the original story where one to three factors have been changed. The Journey to Cedar Creek story is an example of a complex trip planning problem (Jasper, 1992).

A Complex Problem: Rescue at Boone's Meadow

A more difficult trip planning problem is called "Rescue at Boone's Meadow." This video begins with Larry teaching Emily some basic facts about his ultra-light airplane. A few weeks later, Emily takes her first solo flight in Larry's airplane, and Larry, Emily, and Jasper go out to supper to celebrate at Hilda's restaurant and service station. During their meal Jasper tells his friends about a fishing trip he is planning to take in Boone's Meadow, which is a five-hour hike from Hilda's. While fishing, Jasper hears a gunshot and discovers a wounded eagle; he uses a two-way radio to call Hilda for help. Hilda tells Emily about Jasper's call, and Emily drives to the nearest veterinarian to ask for advice. Meanwhile, throughout the various scenes, clues are dropped about gas prices, speed limits, rates of fuel consumption, the ultra-light plane's payload capacity, weather conditions, distances, and runway length requirements. Emily's challenge is to decide the quickest way to get the wounded eagle to the veterinarian, and how long the rescue will take. This problem is more complex because there is more than one route to take, two modes of transportation available, two speeds of travel, and two potential drivers. In other words, there is no single right answer, and students are asked to justify any assumptions they make. Extension problems for this anchor include the addition of headwind and tailwind effects.

Classroom Applications

As can be seen from the story descriptions, students are engaged in Jasper's adventures because the context is realistic and they have to find a solution to the characters' problems. Because students are generating their own ideas, they have a sense of ownership in the learning activity (Jasper, 1992).

Current Examples

Teaching Enhanced Anchored Mathematics

An example of an anchored instruction video was developed by Bottge and his Teaching Enhanced Anchored Mathematics (TEAM) associates at the University of Wisconsin's Center for Education Research (TEAM, 2007). The TEAM website contains a streamed online video of an anchored instruction story called "Fraction of the Cost." In this video, three students go on a quest to figure out if they can build a ramp for their skateboards. Teachers are encouraged to let students actually build a model of the skateboard ramp with Popsicle sticks (Bottge, Heinrich, Mehta, Rueda, Hung & Dannecker, 2004). There is no login required to watch the online streamed video, and teachers can also request a free copy on CD-ROM by sending a written request to TEAM using their school's letterhead. In addition, teachers are encouraged to take advantage of the teacher training options provided by TEAM.

Case Technologies to Enhance Literacy Learning

Another collaboration on anchored instruction is the Case Technologies to Enhance Literacy Learning (CTELL, 2002). According to the CTELL Web site, the goal of the project is "to improve children's reading achievement by re-conceptualizing teacher education through case-based, anchored instruction with multimedia cases delivered over the Internet." Each CTELL anchor video is approximately one hour in length, and the interface allows users to interact with the video segments in a random-access fashion. The interface is still under development, but a sample video and screen shots are available at http://ctell.uconn.edu/home.htm.

Other Resources

Although there are few current videos developed specifically for anchored instruction, similar to the Jasper Woodbury Series, there are a number of educational video producers whose material can be adapted to anchored instruction (Smith, 2007). Scholastic's Read 180 program is designed to help schools meet No Child Left Behind (NCLB) requirements, especially for struggling readers. Read 180 uses collaborative learning in small groups with video segments that are described as anchor DVDs on the company's web site. Unitedstreaming is a service sold by Discovery Education, a division of Discovery Communications, and claims that more than half of all schools in the United States subscribe. BrainPop (http://www.brainpop.com) offers standards-based educational videos for K-8 schools. Although the BrainPop and unitedstreaming websites do not specifically mention anchored instruction, many of the movies could be adapted for anchored instruction (Smith, 2007).

Further Insights

Research

Bottge et al. (2004; Bottge, Rueda, LaRoque, Serlin & Kwon, 2007a; Bottge, Rueda, Serlin, Ya-Hui & Jung, 2007b) have published many research reports about the effects of anchored instruction on academic achievement. His findings are encouraging (Solving, nd), and students in several studies who participated in video-based instruction performed significantly better than students who solved traditional word problems. In addition, Bottge et al. (2004) found that students taught using anchored instruction were better able to maintain and transfer what they learned several weeks later when compared with students taught with traditional word problems. Other researchers (Serafino & Cicchelli, 2003; Shih et al., 1997; Young & Barab, 1999) also found that students were better able to transfer knowledge to an analogous task after exposure to anchored instruction. Furthermore, Langone, Malone, and Clinton (1999) found that students in an anchored instruction group outperformed students in the non-anchored group in an eight-week follow-up test, which provides further evidence that students exposed to anchored instruction retain more of what they learned. Finally, Glaser et al. (1999) studied the interactions between teachers and students, and found that student-teacher interactions more than doubled following an anchored instruction intervention, indicating more engagement by students in the learning process.

However, Bottge (2007b) identifies several disadvantages of anchored instruction, especially when using this approach for students with disabilities. First, the difficulty level of anchored instruction problems is high and may be too hard for students with limited memory. Scaffolds must be in place to help students handle the cognitive demands of the problem. Foster (2004) also points out that the video anchors have no mechanism to help students who are stuck or unmotivated. Second, there is a lack of detail about the skills and concepts measured in anchored instruction research, and there is a need for more specifics about what assessments are measured. Finally, teacher training is an important component of anchored instruction, and teachers need to make sure student groups are working cooperatively. For example, if the group process breaks down, weaker students may end up simply copying work done by stronger students (Bottge, 2007b).

Kurz and Batarelo (2005) conducted a study to determine if pre-service teachers, who have not been given a presentation about the benefits of anchored instruction, are able to appreciate the significance of anchored instruction for their students, and to assess how they view their students' learning using anchored instruction. The study examined the reactions of four pre-service teachers to "Rescue at Boone's Meadow" from the Jasper Woodbury Series. All four teachers found significance when using anchored instruction with their students, but the researchers believe this positive result at least partly came about because of opportunities the pre-service teachers had to collaborate with each other and a knowledgeable mentor. The pre-service teachers were able to see the benefits of a realistic problem-solving environment on their own, and the authors concluded that giving pre-service teachers hands-on experience in the classroom was more beneficial than lectures about the advantages of anchored instruction. Furthermore, Kariuki and Duran (2004) found that anchored instruction was an effective way for pre-service teachers to learn about and teach with technology tools.

AI for Students with Disabilities

Many authors have studied the use of anchored instruction with disabled students (Bottge et al., 2004; Bottge et al. 2007a; Bottge et al. 2007b; Reith et al., 2003). Reith et al. (2003) examined the effect anchored instruction had on the length and level of teachers' responses to students' questions, the length and level of students' answers, and students' participation in the classroom activities. The results of the study supported the use of anchored instruction for students with disabilities. Reith et al. (2003) found that as teachers increased the length and level of their responses to students' questions, students reciprocated with longer and higher-level answers. In addition, school attendance improved and students seemed to be more actively engaged in the classroom activities.

Crews et al. (1997) followed up on the need for scaffolding with anchored instruction, and developed the AdventurePlayer, Anchored Interactive Learning Environment (AILE). The AdventurePlayer is a computer-based program that gives learners tools to solve the problem, but also helps them make the concepts associated with the problem explicit. In other words, the AdventurePlayer's tools "are designed with built-in scaffolds to assist students in bridging gaps in their knowledge of complex aspects of the problem solving process" (Crews et al., 1997, p. 5). The AdventurePlayer was structured to provide scaffolds for Rescue at Boone's Meadow from the Jasper Woodbury Series. When students enter a plan of action, the program tells them if the action is valid, invalid, or incomplete. For example, walking to Boone's Meadow is a valid action, even though it may not be an ideal solution, but driving to Boone's Meadow is not valid because there is no road access. An incomplete action is flying the ultra-light plane to Boone's Meadow because a pilot is needed in order to use this option. Research results found that 79% of students using the AdventurePlayer system generated complete plans, compared to only 8% of students using just the video.

Terms & Concepts

Behaviorism: This is a psychological approach to learning that looks for a change in the learner's behavior as evidence of knowledge acquisition. The focus of behaviorists is on the output of the learning process; they analyze objectively observable and quantifiable behavioral events, such as the ability to regurgitate facts

Constructivism: This is a broad framework and philosophy of education where learning is seen as an active process of knowledge construction. Constructivism is often contrasted with objectivist models, such as behaviorism, in which learning is a process of conditioning and the mind is seen as an empty vessel that the teacher passively fills (i.e., teacher-centered approach). Constructivist approaches are often described as learner-centered because the learner has control over the learning process.

Learning Disability: Limitations that affect people's ability to either interpret what they see and hear or to link information from different parts of the brain are often characterized by difficulty in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and are not necessarily consistent with the person's general cognitive ability.

Metacognition: Learners need to use metacognitive strategies in order to control their own learning. Metacognitive strategies include identifying what you know and what you don't know, being explicit about thinking, planning, self-regulation, and self-evaluation. When learners exhibit knowledge or beliefs about their own thinking it is a signal that they are assuming control of their own learning, and that control can be used to enhance the metacognitive strategies students use in problem solving.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB): The NCLB Act strengthens Title I accountability by requiring the states to implement statewide accountability systems for all public schools and students. The Act sets challenging state standards for reading and mathematics, and annually tests all students in grades 3-8. In addition, annual statewide progress objectives ensure that all groups of students reach proficiency within 12 years. Test results must be disaggregated by poverty, race, ethnicity, disability, and limited English proficiency to ensure that no group is left behind. In 2012, the administration of President Barack Obama distributed waivers to the act, which exempted states from certain aspects of the educational standards (Klein, 2013).

Problem-Based Learning: A hands-on experiential learning method where students investigate and solve real-world, messy problems. PBL is a learner centered approach to problem solving where students actively construct knowledge and are self-directed.

Scaffolding: A training technique where learners are given support of some kind (e.g., pictures, lists, tables, graphs, etc.) that allows them to carry out tasks that they otherwise would be unable to do. The support is temporary (i.e., gradually withdrawn), and is designed to help students accept responsibility for their own learning.

Situated Learning: A general theory of learning that argues knowledge is acquired as a function of the activity, context, and culture in which it occurs (i.e., is situated). In comparison, most classroom learning activities are based on abstract knowledge that is presented out of context. In situated learning, learners are involved in a community of practice and social interaction is a critical component. This theory is linked to the idea of cognitive apprenticeship where the beginner moves from the periphery of the community and by becoming more active and engaged moves to the center of the culture as an expert.

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Bottge, B. A., Heinrichs, M., Mehta, Z., Rueda, E., Hung, Y.-H., & Dannecker, J. (2004). Teaching mathematical problem solving to middle school students in math, technology education, and special education classrooms. Research in Middle Level Education, 27 , 17. Retrieved July 31, 2007, from http://www.nmsa.org/portals/0/pdf/publications/RMLE/rmle_vol27_no1_article1.pdf

Bottge, B. A., Rueda, E., LaRoque, P. T., Serlin, R. C., & Kwon, J. (2007a). Integrating reform-oriented math instruction in special education settings. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 22 , 96-109. Retrieved September 18, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=25017598&site=ehost-live

Cena, M. E., & Mitchell, J. P. (1998). Anchored instruction: A model for integrating the language arts through content area study. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 41 , 559. Retrieved July 30, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=438032&site=ehost-live

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CTELL--Case technologies to enhance literacy learning. (2002). Retrieved August 2, 2007, from http://ctell.uconn.edu/home.htm

CTGV. (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19 , 2-10.

CTGV. (1992a). The jasper series as an example of anchored instruction: Theory, program description, and assessment data. Educational Psychologist, 27 , 291-315. Retrieved July 30, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18982115&site=ehost-live

CTGV. (1992b). Anchored instruction in science and mathematics: Theoretical basis, developmental projects, and initial research findings. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Dr. John D. Bransford. (2006). Retrieved July 30, 2007, from http://education.byu.edu/news/2005_features/bransford.html

Faculty spotlight: John Bransford. (2004). Retrieved July 30, 2007. from http://depts.washington.edu/coe/news/fac_spotlight/bransford.html

Foster, C. (2004). Anchored instruction. (Hoffman, B.) Encyclopaedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved July 31, 2007. from http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/anchoredinstruc/index.htm

Glaser, C. W., Rieth, H. J., Kinzer, C. K., Colburn, L. K., & Peter, J. (1999). A description of the impact of multimedia anchored instruction on classroom interactions. Journal of Special Education Technology, 14 , 27-43.

Hofstetter, F. (1997). Cognitive versus behavioral psychology. Retrieved July 31, 2007, from http://www.udel.edu/fth/pbs/webmodel.htm

Kariuki, M., & Duran, M. (2004). Using anchored instruction to teach preservice teachers to integrate technology in the curriculum. Journal of Technology & Teacher Education, 12 , 431-445.

Kearsley, G. (1999). Tip theory: Anchored instruction (John Bransford & the CTGV). Retrieved July 24, 2007, from http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html

Kim, A. (2002). DVDs poised to become future teaching tool. T H E Journal, 30 , 2-3. Retrieved July 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=8940524&site=ehost-live

Klein, A. (2013). As NCLB waivers take hold, revision of law remains up in air. Education Week, 32, 25. Retrieved December 14, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85766993&site=ehost-live

Kurz, T. L., & Batarelo, I. (2004). Using anchored instruction to evaluate mathematical growth and understanding. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 33, 421-436. Retrieved July 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18622484&site=ehost-live

Langone, J., Malone, D. M., & Clinton, G. N. (1999). The effects of technology-enhanced anchored instruction on the knowledge of preservice special educators. Teacher Education and Special Education, 22 , 85-96.

Lee, M. (2002). Anchored instruction in a situated learning environment. Norfolk, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED477052).

Love, M. S. (2004). Multimodality of learning through anchored instruction. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 48 , 300-310. Retrieved July 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=15324237&site=ehost-live

Oliver, K. (1999). Anchored instruction. Retrieved July 30, 2007, from http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/models/anchored.html

Prado, M. M., & Gravoso, R. S. (2011). Improving high school students' statistical reasoning skills: A case of applying anchored instruction. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (De La Salle University Manila), 20, 61-72. Retrieved December 16, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=59414357&site=ehost-live

A research synthesis of the literature on multimedia anchored instruction in preservice teacher education. (2011). Journal of Special Education Technology, 26, 1-22. Retrieved December 16, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=63613756&site=ehost-live

Rieth, H. J., Bryant, D. P., Kinzer, C. K., Colburn, L. K., Hur, S.-J., Hartman, P., et al. (2003). An analysis of the impact of anchored instruction on teaching and learning activities in two ninth-grade language arts classes. Remedial & Special Education, 24 , 173. Retrieved July 30, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9878821&site=ehost-live

Serafino, K., & Cicchelli, T. (2003). Cognitive theories, prior knowledge, and anchored instruction on mathematical problem solving and transfer. Education and Urban Society, 36 , 79-93.

Shih, Y.-F., & Others, A. (1997). Effects of knowledge abstraction with anchored instruction on learning transfer. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED409877).

Shyu, H.-Y. (1999). Effects of media attributes in anchored instruction. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 21 , 119-139.

Smith, S. (2007). Anchored instruction: Making connections for all learners. Retrieved August 5, 2007, from http://www.iste.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Membership/SIGs/SIG_Newsletter/Archives/20072/April16/SIG_News_April_2007_Resource_Corner.htm

Solving word problems with enhanced anchored instruction in grades 5-8. (n.d.). Retrieved July 30, 2007, from http://www.cited.org/index.aspx?page_id=93

TEAM--advancing the math skills of low-achieving adolescents in technology-rich learning environments. (2007). Retrieved August 2, 2007, from http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/TEAM/index.html

Using technology to support education reform--September 1993. (2001). Retrieved August 6, 2007, from

http://www.ed.gov/pubs/EdReformStudies/TechReforms/chap2g.html

Suggested Reading

Bottge, B. A., Rueda, E., Serlin, R. C., Hung, Y.-H., & Kwon, J. M. (2007b). Shrinking achievement differences with anchored math problems: Challenges and possibilities. Journal of Special Education, 41 , 31-49. Retrieved July 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24597855&site=ehost-live

Crews, T., Biswas, G., Goldman, S., & Bransford, J. (1997). Anchored interactive learning environments. International Journal of AI in Education, 8, 142 -178. Retrieved July 30, 2007, from http://www.vuse.vanderbilt.edu/%7Ebiswas/Research/ile/papers/postscript/advplay.pdf#CrewsT1997

Foster, C. (2004). Anchored instruction. (in Hoffman, B.) Encyclopaedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved July 31, 2007, from http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/anchoredinstruc/index.htm

Kearsley, G. (1999). Tip theory: Anchored instruction (John Bransford & the CTGV). Retrieved July 24, 2007, from http://tip.psychology.org/anchor.html

Kurz, T. L., & Batarelo, I. (2004). Using anchored instruction to evaluate mathematical growth and understanding. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 33 , 421-436. Retrieved July 21, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18622484&site=ehost-live

Suggested Web sites The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury--http://peabody.vanderbilt.edu/projects/funded/jasper/default.html

Case Technologies to Enhance Literacy Learning--http://ctell.uconn.edu/home.htm

Teaching Enhanced Anchored Mathematics (Bottge and associates recent work)--http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/TEAM/index.html

Learning in Informal and Formal Environments (ongoing work by Bransford)-- http://www.life-slc.org/