Body modifications and mutilations

Body modification includes any means of permanently decorating or changing the body, including scarification, tattooing, and piercing. Some individuals go beyond these relatively simple methods of adorning the body to surgical modifications. Such extreme modifications, which often are called mutilation, may include implants and procedures such as tongue splitting and tooth filing. Such practices are controversial among medical professionals, who often refuse to perform extreme procedures on patients. Many see mutilations as evidence of mental illness, and some doctors require patients to first undergo psychological evaluation.

Some modifications are regarded as normal in certain societies. They may have religious or cultural significance. While some view these practices as artistic expression, others view them with suspicion. Some practices, such as female genital mutilation, may be forced upon individuals.

Some regard bodybuilding—and even changes to one's hair, such as shaving one's head when in mourning or removing body hair—as body modification. Generally, however, the term refers to permanent or long-lasting changes to one's appearance.

Background

Body modification has been practiced for thousands of years. In many ancient societies, markings on the body were meant to protect the wearer from evil and illness. Some cultures remembered loved ones, or commemorated events, including rites of passage, with tattoos. Ötzi the Iceman, whose mummified remains were found in a glacier in Europe, is covered in sixty-one tattoos. Most are clusters of parallel lines in areas where he suffered from arthritis, and researchers speculate that they were meant as some form of treatment. They were applied, probably by pricking the skin and rubbing ashes into the wound, about 3300 B.C.E.

Mummies from Egypt's Middle Kingdom (2050 B.C.E.–1652 B.C.E.) bear evidence of tattoos. Egyptian art from earlier periods depicts male genital mutilations related to puberty rites.

Ancient societies often established collective norms, which meant that all members of a group shared the same markings. Some markings indicated social status or dedication to a deity or ancestor.

Many western Pacific peoples, including the people of Hawaii, practiced tattooing. The earliest marks were made by cutting the skin and rubbing ash into the wounds, which caused the resulting scars to be permanently black. Many cultures in the Pacific, such as the Maori of New Zealand, have a tradition of scarification and tattooing. Maori warriors sported face markings to intimidate their enemies. Both men and women received moko, or tattoos with scarification, through a painful process that attested to the bravery of the individual. Sailors picked up the practice and carried tattooing to other parts of the world.

In the United States, tattooing primarily was a custom of the working classes into the early twentieth century. The designs often were patriotic or masculine and were popular among sailors and servicemen. During the mid-twentieth century, tattoos became associated with bikers, convicts, street gangs, and other groups regarded as deviant. Rebellious individuals began to embrace tattooing and created a subcultural style. Later, tattooing became a means of expressing individuality.

Traditionally, scarification has been practiced in equatorial regions. Indigenous people in these areas have dark skin, which made traditional tattooing methods difficult to see. Researchers believe scarification became popular because it was more visible.

Scarification relies on cicatrization, or the formation of scar tissue. Modern scarification is achieved in several ways. Some rely on strike branding, which resembles livestock branding with hot irons. Others use a cauterizing tool to repeat cuts with a scalpel to encourage scarring.

In China, the tradition of foot-binding is believed to have originated during the tenth century. Foot-binding, like the corseting of Victorian England, became a status symbol. A tiny foot, like a tiny waist, was highly desirable. The most desired women in China had feet that were three inches long (the golden lotus). A four-inch foot, a silver lotus, was acceptable, but nothing larger was valued. Tiny feet required that all but the big toes be broken when the girl was about five years old, the toes bent and bound against the sole, and the arch compressed to bend the foot double. The feet were bound with silk strips, and the girls were made to walk to force the arches to break. The custom was practiced for about one thousand years but was banned in 1912.

Overview

Individuals cite a number of reasons for making modifications to their bodies. Some express a need to stand out, while others seek to conform. Some cite social commentary, or a desire to challenge gender or other identities. Some say they achieve heightened physical sensations from modifications. In some cultures, piercings provide the means to display personal wealth such as gold.

Many types of body modification are tribal. Lip stretching, for example, is common among the Chai, Mursi, and Tirma tribes of Africa. When a girl is about fifteen years old, her mother or another woman cuts her lower lip. A wooden plug holds the wound open while it heals for about three months. The girl then replaces the plug and gradually increases the size of the plugs, which usually are made of wood or pottery. She decides how much she wants to stretch her lip. Lip stretching also is a custom in other cultures around the world, including the Kayapo of Brazil. Earlobe stretching, which is achieved in much the same way, is common in some cultures and is increasingly common in Western cultures.

Piercings can range from those on ears, lips, nose, tongue, and cheeks to piercings on genitals and other body parts. Though a traditional form of body modification, piercing has developed in new ways. Corset piercing, for example, consists of rows of piercings on either side of the spine. After the skin heals, ribbon may be laced through the piercings, pulled tight, and tied. Devotees of the practice say stretching the skin increases sensation and is pleasurable.

Many individuals have taken extreme measures to achieve a particular effect. For example, transdermal implants are items placed under and through the skin. These include metal spikes and other items, such as studs. The risk of infection is high because the implants breach the skin. Many medical doctors will not perform such modifications, so many of these procedures are performed by piercing specialists.

Some surgical alterations involve cosmetic surgery. Individuals have had their ears and noses reshaped—for example, to resemble animal features, or to create elf ears.

Eye tattooing, which involves injecting pigment into the sclera, or white of the eye, surfaced in 2007 as a body modification option. The pigmentation, which requires several injections to cover all of the white, is a permanent change.

While many traditional methods remain popular, new means of body modification and mutilation have arisen. Some practices, such as tattooing, have become increasingly mainstream in many societies.

Bibliography

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Guynup, Sharon. "Scarification: Ancient Body Art Leaving New Marks." National Geographic, 28 July 2004, news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/07/0728‗040728‗tvtabooscars.html. Accessed 21 Nov. 2016.

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"13 Most Extreme Body Modifications." CBS News, www.cbsnews.com/pictures/13-most-extreme-body-modifications/. Accessed 21 Nov. 2016.