Caddo

• CATEGORY: Tribal group
• CULTURE AREA: Plains
• LANGUAGE GROUP: Caddoan
• PRIMARY LOCATION: Oklahoma
• POPULATION SIZE: 3,189 (2010 US Census); 4,000 to 7,000 (early 2020s estimates)

The Caddo Nation historically included the Hasinai, Kadohadacho, and Natchitoches alliances of peoples. It existed for centuries before the modern era in what is now the northwest portion of Louisiana, east Texas, southwest Arkansas, and southeastern Oklahoma. In this region of river valleys and upland forests, the Caddo hunted and cultivated the rich fauna and flora in a sustainable manner. They hunted deer, peccary, and bear, as well as small game animals. Long expeditions were sent out on the Southern Plains to hunt buffalo and antelope in the spring and the fall. In early spring, migrations south to the Gulf Coast were made to feast on turtles, seabird eggs, and early spring fruit. Vegetables, fruit, and berries were cultivated in riverine areas in great variety, including amaranth, blackberries, and potatoes.

With the introduction of bows and arrows, hunting became more efficient. Agricultural innovations made it possible to sustain larger populations. Especially important was the introduction of corn and pumpkin. The Caddo planted and harvested two varieties of corn, one smaller and early maturing, the other larger and more abundant. Intensive agricultural methods provided a reasonable harvest yet did not deplete the soil, especially when the corn was grown with beans. Corn and pumpkin were preserved through drying and roasting methods. Food surpluses strengthened the place of the Caddo Nation in relation to other peoples. Food was preserved and stored for future use or traded for items that further enriched the Caddo people. American Indian agriculture continued as a principal means of supporting life for the Caddo well into the twentieth century. Agricultural patterns were based on observation. Each person was taught never to be false with the earth, for lack of respect only leads to destruction.

Classic Villages and Ceremonial Complexes

The classic Caddo villages and ceremonial centers dominated the river courses of the ancient landscape in the Arkansas, Red, Sabine, Neches, and Angelina valleys. Towns were surrounded by the fields given over to intensive forms of agricultural production of maize or corn, beans, pumpkins, squash, and other foodstuffs. Inside the circle of houses of extended families was the central plaza, the public meeting buildings, monuments, and community storage houses. Walkways connected the village’s living areas with its community service areas, the fields, and the water courses.

Architectural and artistic evidence of the classical forms of Caddoan culture have been collected from villages and centers throughout the region of their existence. In the eastern and southern portions of the region, styles closely resemble those of the region of the Mississippi River populations, but in the core Caddo areas their own styles dominate, expressing genius in engraving and design. Elements of design unlike those originating elsewhere appear in important sites such as Keewut’ (the Davis site near Alto, Texas, in the Neches River valley) and Dit-teh (the Spiro mound complex in the Arkansas River Valley in present-day Oklahoma).

The Davis site is on a high alluvial terrace above an old stream bed about a mile from the present course of the Neches River. The remains of this ceremonial complex extend over approximately 60 acres. The most prominent architectural features are three large mounds constructed of rammed earth, clay, and ash. Two of the mound structures are considered to be temple platforms. The third is defined as a burial mound. The outlines of houses and other material remains are concentrated around and between the mound structures. These include the remains of pottery and stone implements as well as marine shell, copper, high-quality flint, and galena, which were imported into the area.

The Spiro mound complex is dominated by two large, monumental structures and a series of seven smaller mounds. The burial mound at the extreme eastern edge of the Spiro is the largest in the ceremonial complex. It measures approximately 91 meters (300 feet) in length, 37 meters (120 feet) in width, and 10 meters (33 feet) in height at its highest point. Architectural features found within the burial mound structure are the primary mound, a clay basin area, a central chamber, and an earthen ramp extending northeast from the main structure. In the central chamber, archaeologists found thousands of pearls, elaborate shell engravings, copper images, and carved cedar, as well as shaped flint, stone celts, and axes. It is one of the most treasured collections of pre-Columbian art in North America.

The Caddo Mounds State Historic Site was directly hit by a tornado in April 2019 during Caddo Culture Day, resulting in one death and injuries in over forty people. The site was destroyed and required a complete rebuild. Lawmakers in Texas allocated $2.5 million to support rebuilding efforts. After revitalizing the grounds and reconstructing the historic structures, the site reopened in mid-2024, featuring a new museum, visitor center, and replica grass house.

Another way to look at the story of the Caddo Nation is through the facts and philosophies that are found within the framework of Caddo dance patterns and songs, notably the traditional Turkey Dance and Drum Dance. Some stories that form parts of the dances and songs relate specific events in the lives of the people, locating them in space and time. Others are historical only in that they communicate a sense of the meaning of history rather than present a record of events. Still others record natural events that have affected the lives of the people. The sequence of songs and dances is destroyed if the stories that speak to the meaning of the people’s existence are ignored and only events themselves are expressed.

The Turkey Dance: Historical Insight

The Turkey Dance is always done in the afternoon. It relates the stream of events in relationship to the land through time that defines the Caddo peoples within the centering device of song and dance. The Indigenous American women dance the principal sequences expressing the active logic of the Caddo people.

For this Indigenous American dance, the drum is placed in the center of the dance ground. Male singers sit around the drum. They begin by calling the dancers through several songs. The first of these songs translates as “Come, you turkeys.” As the women dancers begin to arrive in the dance plaza, they start to dance in a circle, dancing on the balls of their feet in a clockwise direction, in harmony with the earth.

The singers continue, describing the movement of the dancers. The next songs repeat the message of the first, but in the dialects of the various tribes within the Caddo Nation, including the Haish or Eyeish, Neche, Hainai, Yona, Ceni, and Keechi (Kichai). The Keechi are now affiliated with the Wichita but are remembered as part of the Caddo Nation. Only the Hasinai, Hainai, and Haish dialects are spoken with any frequency in the twenty-first century, although each of the dialects is used in the song sequence.

By the end of the first sequence of songs, the dance ground is filled with the color and movement of the women in their traditional dresses. The Turkey Dancers wear clothing of every color—purples, reds, yellows, greens, and blues. The dresses are usually of one piece, with unmarried women having their clothing buttoned in the back and married ones having theirs buttoned in the front. Over the dresses are long aprons that are tied at the waist. The most distinctive feature of their clothing is the dush-tooh, a butterfly-shaped board tied to a silver crown worn in the hair. This is decorated with ribbon pendants and streamers with attached shells or small round mirrors.

The next cycle of songs is the longest. The women in single file follow the lead dancer, imitating the turkey’s gait. They dart each foot forward in turn, then quickly draw it back before planting it on the ground. The feet then alternate in rapid succession. During this phase, the songs relate events and insights from the Caddo collective past. These are records of significant occurrences and understandings in the history of the people. These range from single military engagements to major natural phenomena. Songs carry the story of events that occurred both before and after the forced removal into Indian Territory that climaxed in 1859.

An example of the pre-removal record is that of an eyewitness account of the creation of Caddo Lake. The lake exists on the present Louisiana-Texas border northwest of Shreveport. Two brothers watched as the Caddo people danced through the night in the traditional sequence of dances that includes the Drum Dance, the Bear Dance, the Corn Dance, the Duck Dance, the Alligator Dance, the Women’s Dance, the Stirrup Dance, the Quapaw Dance, the Vine Dance (sometimes known as the Cherokee Dance), the Bell Dance, and the Morning Dance. Several village populations were present at the dance. As it proceeded, the water near the dance ground began to rise. The brothers watched as the people continued to dance while the water rose around them. The older of the two brothers called out: “Let’s go to higher ground—we might all drown.” The people went on dancing despite his efforts. It was then that the brothers noticed movement to the east of the dance ground. They perceived something like a great serpent writhing across the stream bed. This undulating form was holding back the water. The dancers continued to dance, even as they disappeared beneath the water's surface.

Finally, the younger brother went for help, but he did not return until after dawn. The lake was formed where the people had danced through the night. As the people surveyed the scene, they found no serpent, but a natural ridge of land retaining the water, as it does to this day. Some say the people still dance beneath the surface of the water. Others say that the older brother was frozen in fright as he continued to watch the scene. His form is said to be found in stone on the high ground above the lake.

At times during the dance sequence, the women can go to the center of the dance plaza to give the singers some tobacco and tell a story involving an event or insight that further carried the Caddo sense of heritage. These stories are sometimes incorporated into the collected public history of the Caddo Nation in the form of a new song. (At other times, the woman may give tobacco to the singer and simply say, “I have no story.”) In this way, new materials are added to the history as the Caddo moved from their place of origin in southeastern North America up the valleys of the Red River, the Sabine River, and the Neches and Angelina rivers, out onto the southern Great Plains. The dance cycle continues until the end of the historical song sequences.

After an extended pause, the third sequence of songs begins. During this phase of the Turkey Dance, the singers relate a basic philosophical outlook. The dancers move to and from the center of the dance ground examining the singers at the center. As they continue, the dancers examine the center from a variety of perspectives around the dance plaza. The underlying thought is that the Caddo should examine every concern from a variety of perspectives, up close and far away, until they can bring about a decision that is appropriate for the community.

The final segment of the dance begins with a song that tells the women to select a male partner. They dance in a counterclockwise fashion around the dance ground. Sometimes, the women must choose the man and catch him for the dance. If he still refuses, he must offer her an article of clothing, which he must redeem at the end of the dance.

At the foundation of the Turkey Dance is the feeling that the Caddo people can find the center for the community in this analog. Throughout the centuries, all Caddo people have repeated these patterns in dance and song so that they know who they are. Without the Turkey Dance and the other dance sequences, the individuals are lost. The historiography of the dance and its songs provides a civilized frame of reference for lifeway concerns—for public and private decision making.

The Drum Dance: Governance and Development

The initial dance of the night-time dance sequence is the Drum Dance. It tells of the origins of the Caddo people as they emerged from the world of darkness into the world of light. It patterns the nature and structure of governance among the Caddo as well as the spiritual and economic underpinnings of traditional society. The patterns of the dance represent the self-organizing thought patterns that are critical to thought and feeling. The dance refers directly to the emergence of the sun in the universe, the place of emergence of the Caddo people, the ecology of sustainable development, and the village system of life. It also refers to cultural heroes such as Medicine Screech Owl, who introduced the bow and arrow and provided a code of behavior for the Caddo. It also refers to the importance of dreams and visions to appropriate behavior as well as to the symbolic loss and reintroduction of the drum in Caddo lifeways.

Tribal and International Relationships

The Caddo Nation maintained generally harmonious relations with the tribes in the region of the Mississippi Valley and the Southern Plains. They have had close associations with the Wichita Nation for centuries. They also worked with other tribes as they appeared on the Southern Plains, such as the Comanche, Kiowa, and Apache. The Caddo had more strained relations with the Chickasaw and the Osage as they were forced to hunt farther and farther west in the modern era.

Of the European nations, the Caddo Nation was recognized by both the Spanish and the French as the dominant force in the region between the Mississippi River and the Rio Grande. The Spanish named the province of Texas using a corruption of a Hasinai word for “friends,” ta’-sha. While the Spanish attempted to introduce European feudal practices among the Caddo people, the French traded on a commercial scale which brought about more favorable relations. US relations with the Caddo Nation primarily involved forceful removal from Louisiana to Texas and then to Indigenous Territory or Oklahoma, where the Caddo Nation is one of several federally recognized tribes in Anadarko, Oklahoma.

In 1938, a measure of home rule was afforded the Caddo under the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936 when it was accepted by the Caddo voters. A Caddo constitution was drawn up and accepted in 1938 along with an economic charter that provided for economic development. The Caddo constitution has been revised several times since the period of the New Deal to provide more effective governance. The constitution remains true to the federated style of government that has been Caddo tradition for centuries. The tribal council is chosen according to the district in which the member lives. The parliamentary style of governance is headed by the tribal chairperson, who is a member and chief officer of the council. The tribe supports several social and economic programs which benefit the Caddo people and enables cultural retention and preservation of the Caddo languages, customs, music, dances, crafts, and values. In this way, the Caddo maintain a bicultural perception of the world around them.

Bibliography

Dorsey, George A., compiler. Traditions of the Caddo. Nabu Press, 2010.

Drake , Cynthia J. "Five Years after a Devastating Tornado, Caddo Mounds Reopens with a New Mission." Texas Monthly, 21 May 2024, www.texasmonthly.com/being-texan/caddo-mounds-reopens-after-tornado. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

Gregory, H. F., editor. The Southern Caddo: An Anthology. Garland, 1986.

John, Elizabeth A. Storms Brewed in Other Men’s Worlds: The Confrontation of the Indians, Spanish, and French in the Southwest, 1540-1795. 2nd ed., U of Oklahoma P, 1996.

Meredith, Howard. Southern Plains Alliances. UP of Kansas, 1994.

Moss, William. The Wisdom of Oat. Triangle Books, 1993.

"Native Americans: History, Culture, & Tribes: Caddo." Southern Adventist University McKee Library, 26 Sept. 2024, southern.libguides.com/nativeamericans/caddo. Accessed 20 Jan. 2025.

Newkumet, Vynola Beaver. Hasinai: A Traditional History of the Caddo Confederacy. Texas A&M UP, 2009.

Perttula, Timothy K. The Caddo Nation: Archaeological and Ethnohistoric Perspectives. U of Texas P, 1997.

Story, Dee Ann, editor. Archeological Investigations at the George C. Davis Site. U of Texas P, 1981.

Swanton, John R., compiler. Source Material on the History and Ethnology of the Caddo Indians. Government Printing Office, 1942.

Whitebead, Irving, and Howard Meredith. “Nuh-Ka-Oashun: Hasinai Turkey Dance Tradition.” Songs of Indian Territory: Native American Music Traditions of Oklahoma, edited by Willie Smyth, Center of the American Indian, 1989.