Chautauqua Movement

The article presents an overview of the Chautauqua Movement which provided one of the foundations for adult education as we know it today. The movement began in 1874 with a summer assembly to train Sunday-school teachers at Chautauqua Lake, NY. The success of the first summer program indicated a greater demand for the Chautauqua's type of instruction. The article describes lessons from the Chautauqua movement that may be relevant for current adult and continuing education programs.

Keywords Adult Education; Book Club; Chautauqua Movement; Chautauqua Institution; Chautauqua Literary & Scientific Circle; Continuing Education Unit; Correspondence Course; Modern Chautauqua; University Extension Education

Overview

The Roots of Adult Education

The Chautauqua movement began in 1874 with a summer assembly to train Sunday-school teachers at Chautauqua Lake, NY. Founded on the premise that adults of either sex are capable of learning, that intellectual opportunities should comprise of more than just formal education, and that adult education should examine current social issues, the movement symbolizes “one of the first attempts to deliver a national culture, as it brought its programs to rural and urban, east and west, north” and south areas of the U.S. The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle was responsible for the first book club and correspondence course (Johnson, 2001, p. 54). As radio and motion pictures began to provide alternative means for entertainment and teaching and were offered throughout the year, Chautauqua programs became less desirable. The last Chautauqua associated with the original concept was held in 1931. Renewed interest in Chautauqua-type events came about in the 1970s and continues throughout the U.S. today. The Chautauqua Institute, on the original NY site, offers programming each summer for participants to benefit from the enjoyments of a scientifically, politically, and culturally rewarding summer break.

The Chautauqua Movement provided the foundation for “what we know today as adult education. Institutions such as libraries, museums, universities, arts programs, and university extension programs” have resulted from the movement. Many other aspects of 20th century American life, “such as theater, art and music appreciation were greatly influenced by the Chautauqua Movement” (Maxwell, 2000, p. 11).

Chautauqua began when John Vincent, a Methodist minister, and Lewis Miller, a successful businessman, organized a summer training gathering for Sunday-school teachers at Chautauqua Lake, NY. The Chautauqua Sunday School Assembly, as it was called, took place during a time when religious camps and revival meetings were common. The founders, desiring their program to be different from these other gatherings, united daily study with healthful recreation at the Chautauqua site (where the Chautauqua Institution remains today).

The success of the first summer program in 1874 indicated a greater demand for the Chautauqua's type of instruction. The assembly underwent a transformation over the next several years. In 1876, the program was lengthened from two weeks to eight weeks and all denominations were invited to participate. Miller and Vincent recognized that the demand for education was not limited to Sunday school teachers and decided to extend its reach beyond the Chautauqua site (Howell & McGinn, 2006). Vincent's premise was that

• Mature men and women are able to learn,

• Educational opportunities should extend beyond formal schooling,

• Life is education, and

• Adult education should examine current social issues (Scott, 1999, as cited in Howell & McGinn, 2006, p. 2-3).

In 1878, the institution began to change to meet the needs of participants in every walk of life. The Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle (CLSC) was formed, beginning as a book club and correspondence course. The creation of the CLSC was the first major step in secularizing Chautauqua, moving the focus from providing religious instruction to teachers to providing a broader education to all who wanted (Howell & McGinn, 2006).

Creating "Chautauquas"

The creation of independent Chautauquas (also called "daughter" Chautauquas and later "tent" or "circuit" Chautauquas) “represents one of the first attempts to deliver a truly national culture, linking rural and urban, east and west, north and south” throughout the U.S. As a spin-off from the "mother" Chautuaqua in NY, but without official affiliation, “towns organized local committees which took on the responsibilities for arranging the Chautauqua, from engaging talent to selling tickets and doing whatever else was necessary” (Johnson, 2001, p. 54). A program typically extends for five to seven days and usually takes place in the town's largest auditorium or in a large tent. According to Johnson, “Morning sessions were usually devoted to Bible study. The remainder of the program consisted of lecturers, musical acts, debates, dramatic readers, bird callers, bell ringers, and-in the later years-radio and motion picture presentations” (Johnson, 2001, p. 54).

Johnson (2001) continues to explain that early Chautauqua observers were fatigued, lonely men and women leading hard lives in rural America. For husbands and wives, the Chautauqua provided a great relief from their monotonous existence. The Chautauqua circuit not only ended isolation and built a culture for the country, but it also brought other enhancements to rural towns and small cities. The first benefit concerned education. “The short length of the assemblies prevented any kind of intensive education, but Chautauqua events stimulated its audiences to think. Chautauqua circuit organizers also cited an increase in community spirit and togetherness as another benefit. Most of the year, communities were divided into religious, political, and social groups, but at a Chautauqua these divisions were forgotten” since signatures of people from all creeds were needed to bring a Chautauqua to their community (Johnson, 2001, p. 58).

Instruction as Entertainment

In the years after World War I, Chautauquas became increasingly focused on entertainment. The early 1920s brought radio and motion pictures as a competitive way of introducing a national culture to sections of the country that were extremely secluded. Most Chautauqua organizers recognized “that radio could more efficiently perform the same task as Chautauqua, namely the entertainment and instruction of millions simultaneously. Not only did radio provide a more convenient way for performers to reach an audience, audiences also found it more convenient to stay in the comfort of their homes to be entertained, safe from mosquitoes, hard benches, and rain. Radio audiences could also be part of events that Chautauqua could never bring them, events as diverse as presidential elections, inaugurals, and prize fights. Motion pictures, like radio programs, were increasingly available during the 1920s. Motion pictures shared with radio the advantage of convenience for both performers and audience” (Johnson, 2001, p. 59).

Johnson (2001) ends by explaining that different sources of entertainment and education offered throughout the year make Chautauqua programs become slightly obsolete and "old-fashioned." The last Chautauqua associated with the original concept was held in 1931.

Applications

Continuing Education

Howell and McGinn (2006) explain that the Chautauqua movement pioneered the idea of extending learning opportunities to adults who had intellectual interest but could not attend formal universities, or those who wanted to continue learning beyond their formal schooling. Adult education programs continue to fulfill this need today. They suggest that adult educators can learn from Chautauqua's lessons, building future success on a foundation of tried-and-true principles. They discuss lessons for administrators of adult education programs in three areas:

• Financial management,

• Handling rewards

• Responding to competition (p. 3).

Financial Management

Since most adult educators also have administrative and financial responsibilities in addition to providing an educational program, it is important for them to have financial skills. One founder of Chautauqua admitted he did not have a talent for raising money, but the other founder not only brought his own money but also business know-how to ensure the financial and operational success of the original Chautauqua.

Initially, the founders acted as collection agents for Chautauqua assemblies, however they soon dispensed with collections in favor of a gate fee for all participants. While this decision solved an income concern, it also caused an expense since they had to build a fence around the property. The Chautauqua founders did not expect to become rich from their efforts and expended any profits upon facility improvements or program expansion.

Adult educators seem to share with their Chautauqua fathers a passion for learning and a willingness to sacrifice their own financial interests. Most adult education programs are nonprofit and are considered successful if the programs break even and cover costs. In these cases, excess financial reserves in one class may be used to subsidize a lower-enrolling but important course elsewhere.

Howell and McGinn (2006) suggest that the Chautauqua lesson for today's adult educators is that sound financial management is a necessity. If the skill set is not in either the responsible leader or among the leadership team it is only a matter of time until the program will meet its demise. Enough money allows adult education programs to perpetuate and in some cases leverage themselves so that they can expand to meet additional learner needs (p. 3).

Handling Rewards

Adult education administrators know about the importance of rewards in the learning experience of program participants. Some rewards are strictly defined by professional associations such as Continuing Education Units (CEUs), diplomas, and records of registration. Other administrators use small rewards such as cloth patches, T-shirts, lapel pins, trophies, or paper completion certificates (Howell & McGinn, 2006).

Chautauqua was "no different. Its reward system acknowledged participation, completion, and competency in an atmosphere of pomp and ceremony" (Howell & McGinn, 2006, p. 5). The founders also realized that it was important that their rewards not be confused with the certificates and degrees associated with traditional institutions of higher learning. Although the Chautauqua Scientific Learning Circle (CSLC) diploma was radiant with thirty-one seals, it would not stand for much at Heidelberg, Oxford, or Harvard. The intent of Chautauqua's use of awards, as it is now in adult education, was to encourage, motivate, and sustain student learning.

This Chautauqua lesson, suggest Howell and McGinn, is that "adult educators should not overlook the importance of appropriate rewards and ceremony for their learners who reach certain milestones. [Administrators might] also benefit by analyzing their current reward system to see what additional rewards could help overcome learning obstacles" for some of their students (2006, p. 5).

Responding to Competition

It is compliment to an adult education program when other institutions imitate the program, or when the associated university mainstreams the program. One of the most obvious Chautauquan imitations occurred when an entrepreneur combined the Chautauqua idea with the lyceum, an older American institution and came up with the traveling Chautauqua tent show. Even though the original Chautauqua founders did not sponsor these traveling tent shows, they were flattered by their popularity and the publicity that the use of their name had given the popular educational movement (Howell & McGinn, 2006).

Howell and McGinn (2006) describe a significant event associated with competition that resulted in the most important Chautauqua contribution to modern adult education. A Chautauqua-like imitation occurred just across the lake and was sponsored by the Baptist Church. While one of the Methodist founders was displeased that the rival institution was started across the lake, in plain view of the original, he had no objection to its existence, only to its location.

The founder's response to this competition was to hire one of the competitor's most promising educational luminaries, William Rainey Harper. After nearly ten years as an integral part of Chautauqua, Harper became president of the Rockefeller-financed and Baptist-affiliated University of Chicago. Harper's return to the Baptist-sponsored University of Chicago-an influential university that became a model for many other universities at the time-brought about the integration and legitimization of adult education programs as an official part of a traditional university.

This Chautauqua lesson, according to Howell and McGinn, is to "plan on successful adult education programs being imitated or taken over by the host university. The better the adult education program, the sooner it is adopted by others and the more widespread will be its effect" (p. 6).

Modern Chautauqua

The 100th Anniversary celebration of the Chautauqua Movement in 1974 brought renewed interest in the Chautauqua Movement. Humanities Chautauquas, often referred to as the modern Chautauqua, began to develop throughout the U.S. However, “instead of presenting contemporary speakers, as did the historic circuit Chautauquas, these events are portrayals of historic persons in a first person setting. There are usually three to six scholars who portray characters linked to a central theme (Maxwell, 2000, ¶ 13). Most Humanities Chautauquas are produced and sponsored by state humanities councils (Maxwell, 2000).

Types of Modern Chautauqua

For example, the Great Plains Chautauqua, originated by the Arts and Humanities Council of North Dakota in 1976, used a format that became a model for many other humanities councils. At this Chautauqua, “a scholar assumes the dress and character of a historic figure and delivers a monologue on stage in a large tent” (Maxwell, 2000, ¶ 14). The scholar then answers questions from the audience from the character's perspective. In the final part of the event, the scholar puts aside the character and answers audience questions from a scholarly perspective (Maxwell, 2000, ¶ 13). The event is usually begun with local musical entertainment.

History Alive, also known as School Chautauqua, is supported by grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH). “Children in many states have benefited from having "people from history" come into their schools to speak. Bringing a real person into contact with students enables them to have a better understanding of history and the people who shaped it” (Maxwell, 2000, ¶ 17).

Student Chautauquas, also known as "Junior Chautauquas," have become “a part of the curriculum of many schools across the nation in the past few years” (Maxwell, 2000, ¶ 18). The children, on their own, study and research an individual from history and prepare a presentation to their peers by “becoming” the chosen character and producing a monologue to act out. Several of the humanities councils' Chautauquas sponsor auditions for the best of the Chautauqua students to broadcast at the start of their Chautauqua activities.

Senior Chautauqua “takes form in such programs as Elder hostel. The Southern Baptist Chautauqua, for example, provides bible study, crafts, and other special interest programs such as a golf tournament” (Maxwell, 2000, ¶ 22).

Cyber Chautauquas, found on the Internet, provide access to online CEU credits for many professionals. Also online, browsers can download music, videos, movies, and skits at "virtual" Chautauquas.

Many current Chautauquan enthusiasts are unaware of the plethora of local and state events and only consider modern Chautauqua to be about the programs offered at the Chautauqua Institution. At the original Cautauqua site, several secular programs are offered each summer for Chautauquans to enjoy a scientifically, politically, and culturally stimulating vacation. Many of the visitors who return to Chautauqua year after year describe it as a renewal experience rather than a vacation. Each season, the Institution prepares a new program and promotes it through its website (http://www.ciweb.org/).

Terms & Concepts

Adult Education: This term defines the process of teaching adults in their work environment by allowing them to continue their education through outside colleges, universities, and secondary schools.

Book Club: This term refers to a group of people who meet to discuss a book or books that they have all chosen to read.

Chautauqua Movement: This describes the adult education movement in the United States that spread throughout rural America from the late 19th century until 1931; the movement brought entertainment and culture to communities with speakers, musicians, and entertainers.

Chautauqua Institution: Founded in 1874, the Chautauqua Institution is an education program for adults in Chautauqua, NY, on the site where the Chautauqua Movement began. The movement has continued, as a non-profit organization, for each summer since 1874, slowly broadening the length of each season and offering teachings that surround arts, education, religion and recreation.

Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle: This was begun as the first "book club" and "correspondence school" and was a major step in forming continuing education for adults in U.S. history.

Continuing Education Unit (CEU): This term refers to a unit of calculation that continuing education programs use to ensure that the individual maintains a professional license. CEO records offer proof of completion of requirements that were ordered by governmental licensing boards or certification groups.

Correspondence Course: This term refers to a course in print format offered by mail by an accrediting institution or agency; the modern form is distance learning available through Internet access.

Modern Chautauqua: This term refers to programs that have been organized in Chautauqua style since 1974, the 100th anniversary of the original movement.

University Extension Education: This term refers to courses offered at off-campus locations.

Bibliography

Ferguson, N., & Burch, J. (2011). Religious camps: Common roots and new sprouts. Camping Magazine, 84, 48-53. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=67378104&site=ehost-live

Howell, S. & McGinn, A. (2006). The Chautauqua movement and its influence on adult education theory and practice. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from ERIC http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/df/ec.pdf

Imel, S. (2012). Civic engagement in the United States: Roots and branches. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, , 5-13. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=80126062&site=ehost-live

Johnson, R. (2001). Dancing mothers: The Chautauqua movement in twentieth-century American popular culture. American Studies International 39 , 53. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4746534&site=ehost-live

Maxwell, J. (2000). What is Chautauqua? In,The complete Chautauquan: A Guide to What 'Chautauqua' Means in America. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from website http://members.aol.com/AlphaChautauquan/what.html

Scott, J., (2005). The Chautauqua vision of liberal education. History of Education 34, 41-59. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=16432981&site=ehost-live

Sugarman, R. R. (2014). Music in the Chautauqua movement: from 1874 to the 1930s. Choice: Current Reviews For Academic Libraries, 51, 840. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=93265819&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Bendiksen, M. (2007). The endless summers of Chautauqua. Reprinted from New York Archives. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from Chautauqua Institution, www.ciweb.org/archivesreprint_history.pdf

Chatauqua Institution Website. (2008). Accessed December 10, 2007 http://www.ciweb.org/

Ganiere, C., Howell. S., & Osguthorpe, R. (2007). Like produces like: John Heyl Vincent and his 19th century of character education [Electronic version]. Journal of College & Character 8 . Retrieved December 10, 2007 from http://www.collegevalues.org/pdfs/likeproduceslike.pdf

Maxwell, J. (2005). The complete Chautauquan: A Chautauqua Collection. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from website http://members.aol.com/AlphaChautauquan/index.html