Childhood Development

School-age children have certain behavioral patterns in their developmental years that manifest themselves in different ways. Developmental variations can affect a child's behavior as well as his or her ability to learn. In addition to being able to teach, educators must also be capable of understanding these behavioral patterns and evaluating behavioral problems. Accordingly, this article will also discuss a teacher's capacity to evaluate behavioral patterns and how this ability is connected to successfully teaching school-age children. Finally, this article will include a discussion of the role that parents and families play in conjunction with teachers to create a satisfying classroom experience for children and teachers alike.

Keywords Abnormal Behavior; Autonomy; Childhood Development; Cultural Differences; Developmental Stages; Emotional Development; Empathy; Motor Skills; National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC); PsychoSocial Crises; Social Development; Variations in Development

Overview

The study of childhood development is a thoroughly analyzed field and this article will relate that area of study to the successful teaching of young children. As children progress through the first five to seven years of life, a number of critical developmental stages occur (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). During this time, there are variations in development that can affect a child's behavior. These variations, in turn, are influenced by a host of factors. Further, determining whether that behavior is normal depends on a number of considerations. According to Schor (2000), most children have basic desires for recognition, success, acceptance, and unconditional love. Children also have corollary needs for privacy and autonomy. In addition to these basic needs and desires, as children grow, they also experience transitions of life that include entering school, meeting new people, and making friends, as well as trying new activities.

As children go through these stages of development and life changes, their behavior also undergoes changes, and while there is a difference between normal and abnormal behavior, determining the difference between the two can be difficult. This is because there are a number of influences that affect a child's behavior. At times, these differences are related to the differences between an individual child's unique developmental growth as well as external influences such as social factors. These factors are usually related to family issues and there are many differences in family styles, sizes, cultures, and even schedules that come into play. There are, however, clues to determine if certain behaviors are abnormal.

For example, some children are very well-behaved. In fact, they may be too well-behaved. According to the Schor (2000), these children have been found to be "overly anxious to please, very needy of attention, love and approval or fearful of rejection." Such children have been found to be "overly cautious, shy and insecure." Other abnormal behavior patterns are seen in children who intentionally do poorly in school, refuse to follow rules and seek out "no-win" situations. These children often lack self-esteem and self-confidence (Schor, 2000).

The fact that certain children develop the so-called abnormal behaviors elucidated above while other children seem to progress normally through the early stages of life can be attributed to a number of factors. The study of the social development and emotional development of children is rooted in the work of child psychologist Erik Erikson. He established criteria for stages of development that are widely followed by child psychologists. Moreover, he termed these stages psychosocial crises that demand resolution before the next stage can be handled. Some of the early stages of development include learning basic trust, learning autonomy, learning initiative, learning industry, and learning identity (Schor, 2000).

During a child's formative years, parents, guardians, and families have the greatest influence on this development. At this time, children should develop the capacity to trust and have a sense of basic optimism. Well-adjusted children also become sure of themselves, or autonomous. As children continue to grow, they develop new skills by playing and fantasizing. In so doing, they should learn to cooperate with others, and should be able to relate with their peers. As children enter school, they should be able to follow rules and work in a team environment. When they begin more formal studies of reading and math, and are given homework, they should have the self-discipline to meet these challenges. In short, children that have successfully developed through the first stages of childhood should be trusting, autonomous, and have initiative. Children who have not resolved these so-called psychosocial crises become mistrusting and are doubtful about the future. Such children usually experience defeat and feel inferior (Schor, 2000).

Applications

There are a number of reasons why certain children are able to master the early stages of development while others seem to lag or have behavioral or emotional problems. Some of these variations in development are natural and arise from the different paces at which children develop. In these cases, a child that apparently is developing more slowly may not, in fact, be experiencing a problem or exhibiting an abnormal behavior pattern. In addition, a number of family-related factors also influence a child's early development. For example, children born into a family where there are cultural and ethnic differences may develop at a different pace. In homes where English is not the primary language, there can be apparent delays in emotional development that can be the result of a child's ability to learn to speak English outside of the home.

Gender & Development

Emotional Development

There are other factors that contribute to variations in the pace of emotional development in children. In particular, there are variations in development stages for boys and girls. In her article, "Guiding Boys in the Early Years to Lead Healthy Emotional Lives," Christine Mercurio (2003) contends that there are differences in the development of boys and girls. She states that boys and girls have different capabilities and that this is seen in their capacity for "mathematical reasoning, mechanical reasoning and greater motor coordination." Her research indicates that in these areas young boys usually are more advanced than girls. On the other hand, girls show a greater capacity for "fine motor coordination, memory of sequential details and social cognition" (Mercurio, 2003).

Motor Skills

Motor skills are essentially actions that enable people to move the muscles in their bodies. "Greater" motor skills relate to the movement of the arms, legs, feet, and the entire body in general. The development of these skills is seen as children begin to crawl, then walk, and then by running and jumping. "Fine" motor skills, on the other hand, are smaller actions such as being able to grasp objects with the hands, and to use the lips and tongue to taste objects. While there are differences between boys and girls, children attain these developmental benchmarks at different rates and acquire these skills at their own paces.

Communication Styles

Boys and girls also display different styles of communication. While boys tend to be more adversarial, girls tend to be agreeable and more likely to have empathy. Girls tend to externalize positive emotions and internalize sadness and anxiety (Chaplin & Aldao, 2013), whereas boys appear to have a harder time expressing emotions, in particular anger. Many teachers claim that boys can be more troublesome than girls. This can be seen by the fact that boys are more likely to shout, to be stubborn, to argue and to seek attention. In so doing, they also are likely to disrupt others. Such behavior usually causes a teacher to react negatively. The gender of the teacher can also be important in light of the fact that the majority of teachers of childhood-aged students are women. For Mercurio, "boys need to master an environment in which they feel tested." But the challenge for girls is to "find a voice … while guarding against the danger of fracturing relationships and being cut off from them" (Mercurio, 2003, p. 256).

While differences between boys' and girls' development are probably the result of gender, society also plays a role in these differences. Typically, girls are encouraged to empathize, while boys are more likely to be taught to be rough. Moreover, boys and girls are often disciplined in different ways. Boys are more likely to experience physical punishment and verbal intimidation. At the same time, "parents and teachers are more reluctant to be harsh with girls because…of their sensitive nature." More importantly, this can be "damaging to the emotional lives of boys." Mercurio contends that the harsh punishment of boys combined with the fact that they are not encouraged to express their emotions affects their behavioral development (Mercurio, 2003).

Family & Cultural Influences

In their article, "Opening Doors: Understanding School and Family Influences on Family Involvement," Carlisle, Stanley, and Kemple (2005) contend that if parents become involved in their child's schooling, there will be benefits for the children, teachers, and the families. There are a number of factors that influence parents' involvement in their children's education and schooling. Some of these include the cultural and ethnic background of the family, and therefore the English proficiency of the parents, parents' work schedules, as well as the educational level and experience of the parents (Carlisle et al., 2005).

As American society becomes more diverse, the ethnic diversity of the students is also changing. This poses another challenge for educators. Not only must they be able to teach, and to understand the behavioral development of children, it is also important to be familiar with the ethnic and cultural differences of their students' families. In the twenty-first century, many young students are being taught to speak English while the parents at home might not be proficient in English or are even completely unable to speak the language. Not only are communication challenges surrounding the ability of students and their parents to speak English, there are also cultural differences that arise as parents have different beliefs regarding the extent to which they should be involved in a child's schooling. Moreover, the minority cultures among the students are often not reflected in the ethnic background of the teachers (Carlisle et al., 2005).

In addition to the cultural and language factors that influence parents' involvement in the schooling of their children, the educational level and experiences of parents and guardians also has an impact in this regard. Parents who have had positive educational experiences of their own are more likely to participate in school activities (Carlisle et al., 2005).

Family structures also play a role in influencing parents' involvement in schooling. Families in which both parents are present in the home are usually more involved than families in which children are raised by a single parent or by parents living apart. In many cases, noncustodian parents (usually fathers) do not participate in school activities. Likewise, parents' work schedules may not allow for them to become active in a child's schooling (Carlisle et al., 2005).

Viewpoints

Parent-Teacher Relations

The different types of family structures will influence a child's development and behavior, and this is a matter that requires teachers to have sensibilities that go beyond the classroom. In addition to understanding the cultural and ethnic differences of families, teachers also need to have an understanding of the family structures. These are daunting challenges, but by establishing avenues of communication among the schools, teachers, and families, all the cultural and societal barriers for family involvement in children's education can be overcome. By overcoming these barriers, parents can and should be encouraged to become actively involved in their children's educations. There are a number of ways to achieve this. Parents can volunteer in schools, attend school functions, visit their children's classes as guest speakers, or serve in leadership and decision-making roles in the schools.

In so doing, parents and teachers will be presented with opportunities to communicate and thereby exchange useful information. Teachers can provide information about the school, its approach to teaching in general and most importantly, teachers can provide parents with more detailed information about how their child is learning and developing. At the same time, parents can provide useful information to teachers about the specific emotional and behavioral challenges facing their children. Parents can also provide teachers with a greater understanding of the ethnic and cultural background of their children. Finally, parents can provide teachers with information about the family structures that influence their children. In the end, to have a positive and successful learning experience, the schools, teachers, parents and the students must all cooperate and this can only happen if there are clear and open lines of communication between families and the schools (Carlisle et al., 2005).

Conclusion

There are stages of development that childhood aged students undergo before entering school, and which continue once they enter school. These stages of development serve as markers of normal behavior. Some of these stages include learning basic trust, learning autonomy, learning initiative and learning identity. In addition to these stages of development, there are a number of factors that influence childhood development. Some of these are the natural differences in the rates at which children develop and mature. In this regard, there are differences in the childhood development of boys and girls. These differences are related to natural gender differences as well as societal expectations. Regardless of the nature of these differences, they can and do have an impact on the classroom experience for both the students and the teachers.

Further, there are ethnic and cultural influences that affect childhood development, and these are manifested in the extent to which parents become involved in their children's schooling. As society changes by virtue of changing demographics of the population, and the changes occurring to family structures, teachers are increasingly being called upon to go beyond merely teaching concepts, skills, and habits. Modern teachers have a greater role in the emotional development of children (Bodrova & Leong, 2005).

The successful development of children requires both good parenting and successful classroom experiences of school-aged children. While teachers have a good deal of responsibility in this regard, by proactively communicating with parents, they can establish relationships that will prove beneficial to the schools, the families and to themselves. At the end of the day, it is a matter of creating successful relationships.

In her article, "Looking Ahead," Sara Wilford touches on the issue of relationships being the cornerstone of the new program standards and accreditation criteria that the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) established in 2007. The Association's standards put relationships first on the list of standards, since positive relationships among children and adults can encourage a child's sense of self-worth (Wilford, 2006).

Some of the other standards established by the NAEYC include having a curriculum that is geared toward social, emotional, language and cognitive development. Further, the association is seeking more "developmentally, culturally, and linguistically appropriate and effective teaching practices." With respect to teachers, the standards established by the association call for a program that "employs and supports teaching staff that has the educational qualifications, knowledge and commitment necessary to promote children's learning and development and to support families diverse needs and interests" (Wilford, 2006, p. 10).

Terms & Concepts

Abnormal Behavior: Behavioral patterns that do not coincide with the developmental stages of childhood.

Autonomy: One of the basic needs of a child is to establish an identity separate and apart from their parents.

Childhood Development: The social and emotional behavioral patterns that evolve during a child's formative years.

Cultural Differences: The differences in the ethnic and cultural backgrounds of families that influence childhood development.

Developmental Stages: The criteria of social and emotional development elucidated in the work of Erik Erikson. These early stages include learning basic trust, learning autonomy, learning initiative, learning industry and learning identity.

Emotional Development: The stages of development manifested in a child's ability to express their emotions and to interact meaningfully with peers.

Empathy: The recognition of and respect for the emotions of another.

Motor Skills: The actions that enable individuals to move the muscles in their bodies. Greater motor skills are related to movement of the arms, legs, and feet; fine motor skills are related to grasping objects with the hands.

National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC): The largest organization working to promote the well-being of young children, focusing on their education. Founded in 1926.

PsychoSocial Crises: The name given to the stages of emotional and social development by psychologist Erik Erikson.

Social Development: The stages of development manifested in a child's ability to socialize appropriately and to interact with peers.

Variations in Development: Differences in development that arise because of natural differences not due to abnormal behavior, ethnic and cultural differences, and differences in the rate of development between boys and girls.

Bibliography

Blau, D. M. (1999). The effect of child care characteristics on child development. Journal of Human Resources, 34, 786-822. Retrieved December 15, 2005, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=2620963&site=ehost-live

Bodrova, E. & Leong, D. (2005). Promoting self-regulation in learning. Education Digest, 71, 54-57. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=18513568&site=ehost-live

Carlisle, E., Stanley, L. & Kemple, M. K. (2005). Opening doors: Understanding school and family influences on family involvement. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30, 155-161. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20907786&site=ehost-live

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, Feb. 23). Child development basics. Retrieved June 25, 2023, from https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/facts.html

Chang, Y. (2013). The relation between mothers' attitudes toward maternal employment and social competence of 36-month-olds: The roles of maternal psychological well-being and sensitivity. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 22, 987-999. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90187271&site=ehost-live

Chaplin, T. M., & Aldao, A. (2013). Gender differences in emotion expression in children: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 735-765. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88481603&site=ehost-live

Gülay Ogelman, H., Seçer, Z., & Önder, A. (2013). Analyzing perspective taking skills of 5- to 6-year-old preschool children in relation to their self-perception and gender. Journal of Research In Childhood Education, 27, 427-439. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90412820&site=ehost-live

Mercurio, C. M. (2003). Guiding boys in the early years to lead healthy emotional lives. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30, 255-258. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=10838357&site=ehost-live

Myers, R., (Ed.). Normal stages of human development. Retrieved December 15, 2006, from Child Development Institute http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/normaldevelopment.shtml

NAEYC kicks off new interest forums at the 2011 annual conference. (2012). YC: Young Children, 67, 56-59. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85368465&site=ehost-live

Schor, E. L. (2000). Excerpt from Caring for your school-age child: Ages 5 to 12. Retrieved December 15, 2006, from Medem Medical Library http://www.medem.com/MedLB/article_detaillb.cfm?article_ID=ZZZ8QW1A79C&sub_cat=21

Wilford, S. (2006). Looking ahead. Early Childhood Today, 20, 10-11. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20797530&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Berk, L. E. (2001). The social origins of mental life. In Awakening children's minds (pp. 37-74). Oxford University Press. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18411015&site=ehost-live

Berk, L.E. (2001). Learning in classrooms. In Awakening children's minds (pp. 181-219). Oxford University Press. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18411019&site=ehost-live

Ramsey, P. G., Williams, L.R. & Vold, E. B. (2003). The social, political, and economic contexts of children's development and learning. In Multicultural education: A sourcebook (pp. 61-146). Taylor & Francis. Retrieved December 18, 2006, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17461719&site=ehost-live