Community/Youth Programs

As more and more studies have indicated, there are many risks associated with leaving children unsupervised after school. To fill these hours with positive activities, many communities offer after-school and summer youth programs. The activities offered by these programs can range from sports and physical activities, to academic enrichment or tutoring opportunities, to cultural or arts activities. The most successful programs, however, offer a mixture of activities to sustain students' interest. Community youth programs can obtain funding through a variety of government, non-profit, and local resources, though these funds tend to be competitive and are often unsustainable. Programs that can ably articulate their goals and procedures, quantitatively or qualitatively prove their effectiveness, and work co-operatively with schools stand the best chance of obtaining these funds.

Keywords Academic Programs; After-School Programs; Civic Engagement; Funding; Grants; Summer Programs

Overview

As more and more studies have indicated, there are many risks associated with leaving children unsupervised after school. Since most schools finish the day by 3:00 pm and many parents work until 6:00 pm or later, it is easy to see how after-school hours play an important role in children's safety. Youth criminal activity and violence occur most often between the hours of 3:00 pm and 6:00 pm (Vinluan, 2005; Wilgoren, n.d., as cited in Lumsden, 2003). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, at least seven million children come home to an empty house after school because their communities are not equipped with after-school programs that are easily available and affordable; and according to the U.S. Department of Justice, children who are left unsupervised during these hours are more likely to smoke, drink, use drugs, be sexually active and become involved in criminal activity (Vinluan, 2005). One study showed that sixth grade students who were regularly unsupervised when they were in the first, second, and third grade had fewer social skills and poorer grades (Richardson et al., 1989, as cited in Lumsden, 2003). A study of eighth grade students found that those who were left unsupervised for eleven or more hours a week were two times more likely to smoke, drink, or use marijuana than students who were supervised more closely (Richardson et al., 1989, as cited in Lumsden, 2003).

With such stark consequences associated with leaving school-age children unattended, it is not surprising that there has been an increase of after-school and summer recreation programs. In fact, a survey conducted in 2001 by the National Association of Elementary School Principals revealed that over 66% of principals who served pre-kindergarten through eighth grade indicated that their schools are involved with after-school programs for their students. This is a huge jump from a 1988 survey, which indicated that only 22% of the same types of schools offered any kind of after-school program for their students (Lumsden, 2003).

Besides helping keep students out of trouble and away from high-risk behaviors, high-quality after-school programs for elementary school students can result in better grades for students, improved work habits, and better social relationships with their peers. Studies have also shown that participation in a good after-school program can help students maintain better self-control, avoid conflict, and make constructive choices about their own behavior (Eaton & Quinn, n.d., as cited in Lumsden, 2003). Additionally, research on students participating in after-school programs shows that they increase their standardized test scores and decrease their absenteeism and tardiness rates (Vinluan, 2005).

After-school programs can be run by community organizations, public schools, private schools, church groups, government agencies, and for-profit businesses. Their purposes can vary, but they all provide a safe haven for children. Programs can offer a variety of athletic and physical activities; focus on education by providing tutoring and assistance with homework; offer personal enrichment activities such as music, art, dance, and crafts; or mix programming to meet all children's interests and needs (Shumow, 2001). Programs can occur before and after regular school hours as well as during the summer months, and can cover a vast array of subjects such as corrective education, math and science programs, arts and music clubs, entrepreneurial education programs, tutoring, English as a second language assistance, recreational activities, technology education programs, family literacy programs, special programs for suspended or expelled students, and drug and alcohol prevention programs (U.S. Department of Education, 2007a).

Further Insights

Types of Community-Youth Programs

While a more effective youth program tends try to keep children interested and engaged by proving well rounded activities, there are other programs that focus on specific skills or academic subjects. Some of these programs are (Urban After-School Programs, 1998):

Language Arts Programs

These programs focus on increasing students' language and literacy skills and encourage reading for pleasure. A language arts program can include trips to the local or school library. Parental involvement can also be a key component of such programs. Parents can be encouraged to help their children with their homework, make family trips to the local library, and allow their children less time in front of the television or computer.

Academic Subject Programs

These programs are subject specific and can address any subject the school is teaching, such as science, mathematics, computer technology, history, and English. When offered by the school, these programs can be an extension to the school day, either before school officially starts or after school lets out for the day. They may also continue throughout the summer.

Tutoring Programs

These programs offer one-on-one tutoring for students in certain subject areas. These differ from academic subject programs in that, usually, there are no group activities and students are tutoring in a range of subjects.

Study Skills Programs

These programs are more holistic and less subject specific. They teach students effective study habits, time management skills, how to read a textbook, and other strategies to help them organize and retain information. By improving their study skills, students can to be better prepared for tests and be more successful in the classroom.

Community Programs

These programs do not focus on academic skills, but rather emphasize social, recreational, or cultural activities. With these focuses, academic achievement tends to be a byproduct of participation rather than a goal.

Characteristics of After-School & Summer Programs

Those programs that offer a range of activities rather than just tutoring or homework assistance are considered to be more effective at drawing in students and keeping them engaged (Grossman et al., as cited in Lumsden, 2003). By offering a variety of components, such as cooking, computers, sports, music, and art, these programs can more easily bring in students who would otherwise not be interested in participating in the program. Once students start coming to the program and experience all its available offerings, they are more likely to stay, make new friends, further develop their social skills, and get any academic assistance they may need.

An effective after-school or summer program provides academic, cultural, and recreational activities for its participants. The best way to provide effective academic assistance is to work with local schools to develop a program that is aligned with the schools' curriculum. Ideally, the program can hire instructors from the schools to work with the children participating in the program. If that is not possible, then hiring staff with teaching credentials is another option, followed by hiring professional tutors and college students. If the program must rely on volunteers, college students, or other people who do not have teaching credentials, then it is important that they receive appropriate training and ongoing professional development.

Cultural programs can explore a myriad of subjects that are not covered in public schools. Students can learn new skills, develop an appreciation for music and art, and learn social etiquette and develop self-esteem. For older participants, job searching skills such as how to dress for an interview, interviewing skills, and how to develop a good résumé can be addressed.

Recreational programs can provide a safe, inexpensive way for children to participate in sports and physical activities through which they can develop their physical abilities and learn sportsmanship, coping, and problem-solving skills (Bronfenbrenner, 1986, as cited in Urban After-School Programs, 1998).

Well-designed after-school and summer programs have similar characteristics (Urban After-School Programs, 1998):

• Programs have well-trained staff and volunteers. It is important that staff be well qualified and receive appropriate training working with different types and ages of children. Professional development should also teach staff members how to implement program components and proper evaluation techniques.

• Programs should also be structurally sound. They must have clear goals and procedures, and possess the resources necessary to meet their goals (Fashola & Slavin, 1997, as cited in Urban After-School Programs, 1998). Programs that have a strong academic element should try to work with local schools to align with the schools' curriculum.

• Programs should practice assessment to help determine if goals are being met. Assessment can also show that participants are making academic progress, such as mastering mathematics concepts and increasing their reading speed and comprehension; and can also be used to show improvements in student behavior, such as higher self-esteem and less violent behavior. Formal and informal assessments can be used to help show program success, which can then be used for seeking external funds and program support.

• Programs should try to include family members. Including family members when planning programs can be especially useful when offering cultural activities for participants and their parents. Engaging families in programming can encourage their support of the program and the continuing attendance of their children.

• Programs should have an advisory board. An advisory board can help the program maintain connections with the community, families, other organizations, and the school system. A board can also help develop policies for the program and provide the program with alternative points of view.

Academic after-school programs can be designed to support classroom lessons, help reinforce skills, improve students' classroom performance, or help students meet their state's minimum competency requirements. Effective after-school programs that strive to improve children's academic success share similar characteristics (Poggi, 2003, as cited in Protheroe, 2006):

• They are based on each student's academic needs. For programs that are not directly school sponsored, this can be determined by working with the school and receiving parental consent to view students' assessments and teacher reports. Doing so can save time and provide staff members with more information than administering assessments within the program.

• Ideally, the program staff is comprised of certified instructors. If they are not trained instructors, the staff needs to have a sound awareness of specific instructional strategies that aid in students’ comprehension of educational material.

• The size of the class should be relatively small, especially for younger students, with no more than 15 participants per instructor/staff member. This way, students will be able to receive personalized assistance.

• Consistent, specific communication between the after-school program and the school should occur so that any issues can be addressed and resolved.

• The program should be evaluated with pre- and post-assessments to determine if student achievement has increased. Any adjustments to the program can then be based on sound data.

Challenges Facing After-School & Summer Programs

Elementary school principals cite inadequate staffing, lack of funding, and transportation as major factors that jeopardize their after-school programs (Bowman, 2001, as cited in Lumsden, 2003). These programs often cannot afford to pay employees a very competitive salary, so they can experience a great deal of staff turnover. This turnover can easily affect a program's quality and student outcomes (National Institute on Out-of-School Time, n.d., as cited in Lumsden, 2003). It can be difficult for school and community programs to find the funding necessary to run a high-quality program. Many federal, state, and local grants can be accessed to start up a program, but these grants seldom provide a continual source of funding for any program. Therefore, it is imperative that program directors begin looking for sustainable funding once they get the program up and running.

A national survey of after-school programs found that many programs have difficulty maintaining funding and do not have enough available spaces for all the children who would like to participate. During the 2005-2006 school year, 75% of the programs surveyed reported that they were operating at or above capacity. These programs also reported that they dealt with a loss of funding by raising fees, and recourse chosen even by programs that served low-income families and communities (M.R.D., 2006). In 2005, 26 states did not fund any new grants for after-school programs. One report stated that funding for after-school programs was noted in the No Child Left Behind Act, but that these funds had yet to be allocated (J.L.T., 2006).

Federal Funding Opportunities for After-School Programs

Different types of federal funding programs are administered by various departments of the federal government. Some of these programs include (Vinluan, 2005):

21st Century Community Learning Centers

“This is a U.S. Department of Education program awards grants for after-school services. These grants are designed to expand academic enrichment opportunities for children attending low-performing schools,” and open the schools for greater community use (Vinluan, 2005, ¶ 7).

Title V Incentive Grants for Delinquency Prevention Programs

This is a U.S. Department of Justice program that provides grants to programs and services that aid in youth development, prevention, and intervention. These grants give states matching grants for services that are based on the community.

Community Service Block Grants

This is a U.S. Department of Health and Human Services grant program that is intended to aid low-income children and communities. The grants can be used to fund programs designed to promote sports and physical fitness activities and help participants build character.

Safe School/Healthy Students Initiative

This is a U.S. Department of Health and Human Services grant program that is “intended to promote healthy childhood development and prevent violent behaviors. The grants can be used for after-school programs that focus on violence prevention and intervention methods” (Vinluan, 2005, ¶ 10).

Nutrition Programs

There are a variety of nutrition programs designed to help provide students with nutritious snacks and meals. Two such programs are the National School Lunch Program, which provides snack reimbursements to school-sponsored after-school programs, and the Child and Adult Care Food Program, which provides low-income area after-school programs with snacks and meals.

Federal funding for 21st Century Community Learning Centers is close to $1 billion. In both 2006 and 2007, over $981 million was appropriated to states to disburse to programs (U.S. Department of Education, 2007b). State education agencies may apply for the grants, and then “local education agencies and nonprofit organizations may apply to their states for subgrants through a competitive process with preference given to applications that are jointly submitted by an educational agency and community-based organization or other public or private entity” (U.S. Department of Education, 2007c, p. 1).

Program Participants

Research has shown that minority children do not participate in youth programs as much as other children do (Brown & Evans, 2002; Davalos, Chavez & Guardiola, 1999; Duffett & Johnson, 2004, as cited in Perkins, Borden, Villarruel, Carlton-Hug, Stone & Keith, 2007). Studies have also found that children who live in urban, low-income communities do not participate in youth programs as much as children who live in middle-income and upper-income urban areas and suburbs do (Bocarro, 2002; Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1992; Weiss, Little & Bouffard, 2005, as cited in Perkins et al., 2007). Low-income urban areas are more prone to high rates of unemployment, crime, and violence, which is more reason for children to attend after-school and summer programs (Aneshensel & Sucoff, 1996; Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1992; Schinke et al., 2000, as cited in Perkins et al., 2007). Gender can also be a predictor of who participates in which programs. Girls have been found to prefer programs that are more social in nature (Passmore & French, 2001, as cited in Perkins et al., 2007), and boys are usually more likely to participate sports-related activities (Davalos et al., 1999; Eccles & Barber, 1999, as cited in Perkins et al., 2007).

One study of urban African-American youth who attended a program found that they were motivated to participate because they found the program fun, with girls also identifying the opportunity to learn new concepts and skills as another major reason for attending (Gambone & Arbreton, 1997, as cited in Perkins et al., 2007). Another study of urban African-American and Latino children who are living in poverty cited a feeling of “safety and belonging, the acquisition of positive behaviors, and the development of competence and self-esteem as the most frequent reasons for attending a youth program” (Carruthers & Busser, 2000, as cited in Perkins et al., 2007, p. 422). Various studies of Latino youth and their participation in structured programs indicate that they are drawn to these programs because they provide “a safe place and caring relationships with the staff” (Borden, Perkins, Carleton-Hug, Stone & Keith, 2006; Halpern, Barker & Mollard, 2000, as cited in Perkins et al., 2007, 423).

There are many reason cited for participating and not participating in youth programs. Among the reasons noted for participation are:

• to avoid dangerous influences,

• to learn new things,

• to avoid boredom,

• to have fun,

• to learn new skills,

• to be with friends,

• to get help with schoolwork,

• to get away from home,

• to meet new friends,

• to get help with problems,

• to feel accepted,

• to participate in the activities,

• to be with staff whom they like, and

• to be in a safe place.

Among the reasons given for not participating in programs are

• preferring other interests,

• preferring risky behaviors,

• lack of time

• negative opinions of the program,

• a parent's refusal to allow participation,

• lack of transportation,

• negative peer pressure,

• little interest in the activities,

• aversion to the program rules,

• shyness,

• lack of money, and

• a court order or program staff preventing participation (Perkins et al., 2007).

Applications

For programs that focus on improving student academic performance, guidelines should be implemented to help determine which students will be allowed to participate in the program. By limiting program participation to only those students who have the greatest academic need, it is easier to design the program to meet students' needs. Doing so can also ensure that there is enough room in the program for students who are most in need of academic services. However, the program needs to market itself in such as way that it does not stigmatize participants or come be viewed as a punishment for its participants (Protheroe, 2006).

Securing funding and resources can always be a difficult hurdle for after-school and summer programs. While funding sources are available, competition for these funds continues to increase as more programs are developed and existing programs expand. Programs that have a sound foundation, conduct regular assessments, have strong community support, and can prove their effectiveness can sometimes sustain themselves by tapping into local support. Such an approach may be easier for smaller towns and communities, where only one program is seeking school and community's support.

Terms & Concepts

Civic Engagement: Civic engagement describes to actions designed to address issues of pubic concern. It can take the forms of volunteerism or organizational involvement, and can include efforts to directly address an issue and work with others to solve a problem. Activities can range from volunteering at a community agency, writing a letter to elected officials, voting, or anything intended to strengthen a community.

No Child Left Behind Act: The No Child Left Behind Act is a major overhaul of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the major federal law regarding K-12 education.

Bibliography

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Forneris, T., Whitley, M.A., & Barker, B. (2013). The reality of implementing community-based sport and physical activity programs to enhance the development of underserved youth: Challenges and potential strategies. Quest (00336297), 65, 313-331. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89432268&site=ehost-live

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Perkins, D., Borden, L., Villarruel, F., Carlton-Hug, A., Stone, M. & Keith, J. (2007). Participation in structured youth programs. Youth & Society, 38 , 420-442. Retrieved October 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25164688&site=ehost-live

Protheroe, N. (2006). Successful after-school programs. Principal, 85 , 34-37. Retrieved October 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20318489&site=ehost-live

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Shumow, L. (2001). Academic effects of after-school programs. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED458010). Retrieved October 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/19/55/c6.pdf

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U.S. Department of Education (2007a). 21st century community learning centers. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/programs/21stcclc/index.html

U.S. Department of Education (2007b). 21st century community learning centers. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/programs/21stcclc/funding.html

U.S. Department of Education (2007c). 21st century community learning centers. Retrieved October 16, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/programs/21stcclc/eligibility.html

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Suggested Reading

Haas-Foletta, K., Cogley, M. & Ottolini-Geno, L. (2005). School-age ideas and activities for after school programs. New Albany, OH: School-Age Notes.

Hill, S. (2007). Afterschool matters: Creative programs that connect youth development and student achievement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Hirsch, B. (2005). A place to call home: After-school programs for urban youth. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

National Research Council. (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.