Conation

This article develops a basic definition of conation, and examines the history of the concept from Greek philosophy up to the present. It next explains the changes in the definition and understanding of the concept, and presents some problems and solutions that scholars have presented over the last several decades. The article concludes with an examination of several conation studies that have recently been carried out in the field of education, and arrives at the current interpretations and applications of the concept.

Keywords: Affection; Aptitude; Cognition; Conation; Interactive Learning Model (ILM); Learning Combination Inventory (LCI); Learning Model; Personality Trait; Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Overview

Defining Conation

Unless we have a clear and agreed upon definition of what we mean when we use the word conation, we can neither understand how conation helps to explain human nature, nor discuss the current applications of its concept in various academic fields. This is particularly true of education theory, where conation has seen the most application in recent decades. However, before attempting to define conation, it should be noted that a great deal of the writing about conation has been, over the last three decades, essentially attempts at clearly defining it. Unfortunately, these scholarly efforts have sometimes created more confusion than clarification of the concept. Many scholars have realized that creating a clear definition for conation is quite difficult; the confusion and debate over what the word means, and how to conceptually apply it, continues up to the present.

The etymological root of the Latinate word conation comes from the Latin noun conatio, "act of attempting," which has its source in the Latin verb conari, "to attempt." However, the concept of conation even precedes this Latin root, going back to early Greek philosophy. As Messick observes, "The Aristotelian image of the psyche was divided into three parts: affection, conation, and cognition" (Messick, 1996, p. 357). Two of those parts seem much easier to explain than the part under exploration here; conation seems the most shadowy of the Aristotelian model of the mind. "Affection" and "cognition" are words most people have heard and generally use, but what does conation refer to? For Aristotle, "affection" refers to the emotions; "cognition" refers to thought or the process of thinking; and conation refers to motivation, or the active implementation of one's will. In terms of its meaning in contemporary education theory, Huit writes that,

Conation refers to the connection of knowledge and affect to behavior and is associated with the issue of "why." It is the personal, intentional, planful, deliberate, goal-oriented, or striving component of motivation, the proactive (as opposed to reactive or habitual) aspect of behavior. It is closely associated with the concept of volition, defined as the use of will, or the freedom to make choices about what to do. It is absolutely critical if an individual is to successfully engage in self-direction and self-regulation (Huitt, 1999, ¶ 3).

Huitt's definition fundamentally expresses the Latin root of conari ("to attempt"), and a lot of his definition centers upon the concept of taking action, of intentionally and deliberately achieving objectives. We also see the words "motivation" and "will" used in the definition, while the beginning of his definition refers to conation as the way humans connect knowledge and emotion to create human behavior. Huitt thus defines conation as some active and wilful aspect of the human mind that creates behavior.

Reviving the Concept

Richard E. Snow, whom other scholars have credited with bringing the concept of conation back into educational theory, writes that conation has been traditionally defined as … that aspect of mental process or behavior by which it tends to develop into something else; an intrinsic 'unrest'… the opposite of homeostasis … a conscious tendency to act; a conscious striving…, impulse, desire, volition, purposive striving… (Snow, 1996, ¶ 2).

Snow points out that the concept of conation was "deleted" from psychology all the way up to the 1980's (Snow, 1996, ¶ 3). Huitt also notes the absence of conation in the previous century of psychology. "At the beginning of modern psychology," writes Huitt, "both emotion and conation were considered central to its study; however, interest in these topics declined as overt behavior and cognition received more attention" (Huitt, 1999, ¶ 5). Kupermintz (2002) also credits Snow with reviving interest in the conative aspect of educational theory, and like other scholars, observes that the concept has been oddly ignored for a long time:

The call for including the study of affective and conative aspects in learning and performance of academic tasks has been a centerpiece in Richard E. Snow's theory of aptitude. Although the importance of these aspects of performance has been recognized, since the early days of the scientific exploration of intelligence by Binet and his followers, they have not become an integral part of contemporary thinking about cognitive functioning. It is only in the last 3 decades or so that significant attention has been given to domain-specific motivational factors that influence cognitive functioning in formal and informal learning environments. It was the integration of these motivational factors and other aspects of mental functioning that Snow, Corno, and Jackson (1996) thought was important for advancing the study of learning and performance. In their work, after Hilgard (1980), they differentiated the mind into three types of processes: cognitive, affective, and conative (Kupermintz, 2002, p. 123).

The most likely reason that conation was ignored in psychology for so many years is that conation is the most difficult part to test or verify. Kupermintz alludes above to the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Quotient test, and that is a good example of "scientific exploration" of the cognitive part of the mind. Anger, love, compassion, jealousy, and other emotions also seem more easily identifiable and testable through research, but conation seems a difficult aspect for scientific exploration. However, it may be that scientifically exploring and explaining conation could make significant contributions to psychology and education, which is why researchers have turned to it in recent years. As Huitt notes, researchers began to postulate that "conation is necessary to explain how knowledge and emotion are translated into behavior in human beings." Huitt also observes that a significant reason researchers have had difficulty accurately predicting behavior "is because the construct of conation has been omitted" (1999, ¶ 5). As Huitt observes, "Many researchers believe volition or will or freedom of choice is an essential element of voluntary human behavior and that human behavior cannot be explained fully without it." Huitt also notes that conation "is especially important when addressing issues of human learning" (1999, ¶ 6).

Three Aspects of the Mind

Although we have been speaking of three "parts" comprising the human mind, it is important to consider whether these "parts" should be perceived as parts, as though they can be separated from each other. It seems much more likely that these "parts" have an effect upon each other and are not actually separable; especially if we consider personality as an entirety. This is why Messick, who observes that affection, cognition and conation are often viewed or referred to as a "tripartite" model, asserts that "… a better term might be the 'trinity of mind,' which suggests the union of three aspects in personality" (Messick, 1996, p. 357). Kupermintz also points out the problem of dividing the mind into three parts:

… the cognitive, affective, and conative qualities of performance are not provinces; they operate in synergy. Keeping them separate … limits our ability to understand the totality of the performing individual (2002, p. 135).

A primary question among conation researchers, then, is whether by having largely ignored conation in psychology — and consequently in our educational system — educators may either cause adverse effects in their students' cognitive development, or at least are not taking full advantage of educational opportunities with their students. Kupermintz poses that question, and points out that researchers need to develop methods to research conation, and design tests that can yield consistent, demonstrable results. Kupermintz also observes that the way the three aspects of the human mind interact during learning processes or situations of performance remains largely unexplained (2002, p. 124). Other researchers have consistently pointed out this problem. For example, Messick observes that the relationships among the aspects of mind are quite complex, and that those interactions have always been "vague and amorphous" (Messick, 1996, p. 353). Thus, part of the problem in defining conation is a lack of understanding exactly how this aspect of the psyche interacts with the other parts.

Further Insights

Conation & Cognitive Development

A central question for educators is, how does conation interact with cognitive development? Huitt opines that educational theory and practice has evolved such that the cognitive aspect is "deeply enmeshed in our schools today (e.g., basic skills, critical thinking)" (1999, ¶ 5). This again points out the simultaneous emphasis of cognition and de-emphasis of conation. Huitt argues that "helping students develop the conative attitudes and skills associated with self-direction and personal efficacy is one of the most critical tasks presently facing parents and educators" (1999, ¶ 5). This is why Snow began trying to develop a definition of conation that would be more specific and applicable to modern education theory. Snow writes,

I stressed that aptitudes were not strictly cognitive, that individual differences in learning had to arise from the operation of aptitude complexes combining cognitive, conative, and affective functions, and that process models had to represent these complexes, not just the cognitive functions alone (1996, ¶ 3).

A Modern Definition

Thus, the definition of conation needed extending so that conative aspects of the mind were shown in relation to the cognitive and affective. By explaining those relationships, conation could then become part of learning models in education theory. As Young and Perkins observe, Snow created an explanation of conation that makes the difference between cognition and conation a matter of degree rather than separate aspects. They also point out that Snow's discussion of "learning strategies" shows that both conative and cognitive aspects interact in a complex way. Cognitive strategies influence how a person processes information, but students initiate learning strategies because of volition and motivation. This is why Young and Perkins conclude that "both cognition and conation are equally important parts of Snow's picture of the human learner." The authors concur with Snow that "a model of the learner which did not take conative factors into account would be of little use in explaining individual differences in aptitude for learning in educational settings" (Young & Perkins, 1995, p. 150).

Gerdes and Stromwall (2008) disagree with Snow's definition, though perhaps the disagreement is more from a misunderstanding of Snow's ideas than it is a true disagreement. In any case, this points out the continuing problem of clearly defining the concept. However, Gerdes and Stromwell at the same time do point out an important distinction that scholars would do well to understand:

Conation … is not the same thing as motivation or desire. Motivation and desire are affective aspects of consciousness, not conative ones. In brief, motivation is a feeling, whereas conation is the style of action a person uses to respond to that feeling. … The confusion between the idea of conation (as motivation or as instinctive drive) is still a theoretical stumbling block today. But from the earliest discussion of conation, most thoughtful scholars have maintained that conation is not a description of wanting but a label for the characteristic way in which people go about fulfilling their desires (2008, p. 235).

Snow and others do make a distinction between feeling motivation and "a conscious tendency to act; a conscious striving" (English & English, as cited in Snow, 1996). However, Snow's conception needed further development by other researchers who could formulate more specific types of action that clarified the difference between feeling motivation and the behavior that comes out of feeling that motivation. This distinction is inherent in scholarly articles published a decade before Gerdes and Stromwall pointed out the problem. On the other hand, Gerdes and Stromwall make a good point that Snow classified learners as having high- or low-conative ability. The authors contend that, "if conation is a shaping force that dictates different patterns of action, quantifying it as 'high' or 'low' is meaningless" (2008, p. 235). Their point is an important one, but since Snow's initial push for conative research into the learning process, other researchers — including Gerdes and Stromwall — have developed more specific "patterns of action;" the concept that learners have high or low levels of conation has naturally dropped out.

Learning Styles

Other researchers have also worked at extending the definition to show how conation helps shape personality, which influences individual learning styles. For example, Messick argues that "…personality factors may… help to establish and regulate the direction, duration, intensity, range, and speed of cognitive functioning as well as its initiation, maintenance, disruption and termination" (1996, p. 354). Messick is primarily describing conative activities that affect learning. Without the active will, there would be no direction, duration, intensity or initiation. Thus, conative elements that help shape personal disposition in turn influence individual learning. Snow referred to this collectively as "self-regulation," which he defined as "voluntary action management." Snow observes that, in education research, the self-regulation component of conation "seems to have become the overarching conative concept." Snow quotes Karoly, who ponders whether "…we are currently in the midst of a 'conative revolution,' a Kuhnian paradigm shift, or a natural recycling of conservable ideas…" (1996, ¶ 4).

Issues

Developing Research Methods & Conceptual Models

Young and Perkins point out that Snow's definition of conation "refers to the mental faculties of volition or motivation which are normally accessible to researchers by questionnaire or introspective techniques." That observation expresses an important idea: that researchers can develop methods of research, and ways of testing, to yield consistent results that could shed light on what has been the most mysterious and difficult aspect of mind. Young and Perkins observe,

By self-regulatory functions, Snow recognizes that the individual's mindful control over information processing, or metacognitive awareness, may affect how learning takes place. Motivational orientations are distinctly conative in nature and include motivation for continued learning and achievement, interest in the subject matter, and a sense of confidence and self-efficacy as a learner (1995, ¶ 32).

Second Language Acquisition

Young and Perkins carried out a study on how conation relates to second language acquisition (SLA). They point out that past research on instructional methods for SLA has focused mostly on learners' cognitive development. They carried out their own studies that led to them to develop the cognitive/conative learning model. Their model demonstrated that "cognition is only part of the picture" and they conclude "much more needs to be known about the conative effects of instruction" (1995, ¶ 54). Young and Perkins suggest that much more research needs to be done to see how teaching methods and materials "can best enhance second language learners' learning strategies, motivational orientations, and capacities for self-regulation" (1995, ¶ 54). The conative concept of self-regulation has thus refocused SLA teaching methodology more on the role of conation in relation to cognition.

Science Learning

Kupermintz carried out a study that focused on the role of conation in high school science learning. The author created a study with questionnaires and surveys to explore how conation relates to cognitive development in science, and notes that, "our study surveyed a wide range of motivational resources and their contribution to performance in tasks reflecting different facets of achievement in high school science learning" (2002, p. 124). In particular, Kupermintz was interested in finding a way to gauge student motivation in relation to cognitive development. The motivational indicators used in the study "included students' confidence in their ability to do well in the domain of science and their perceived value of the domain (including interest, importance, and usefulness)" The researcher assessed the role of engagement and self-regulation through "students' reports of various activities during class" (p. 126). One centrally important aspect to the study is the idea that, according to the individual's "affective or conative responses in a particular situation or context", individuals indicate particular "psychological states." The author notes that, "when such states are consistently observed across different situations, the label trait may be used to denote fairly general, stable individual differences" (p. 125). So, the study also attempted to expose conative characteristics in order to help build a profile of specific traits that relate to learning.

Though Kupermintz admits the study was basic, it was nevertheless in the right direction for incorporating conative aspects into an education model. The study examined "the extent to which motivational aptitude constructs are implicated in the academic performance of high school students in the domain of science, over and above what can be predicted from considering the contribution of general cognitive ability and background characteristics." Kupermintz concludes, that overall, our findings demonstrate the importance of considering motivational resources in explaining performance on academic tasks, as predicted by Snow's theoretical arguments (Kupermintz, 2002, p. 133).

Motivation vs. Patterns of Action

However, the Kupermintz study does ride the line between feeling motivation and using "patterns of action," which is observable behavior. Johnston created a study that investigated those specific patterns of action. Her revised definition of conation moves toward the active results that arise from feeling motivation, noting that conation,

which guides performance, includes the learner's pace of performance and degree of autonomy while learning. Conation determines the learner's agility in using personal tools of learning, such as meticulous wording, a clear plan of action, and tactics aimed at solving real-life problems. Learners do not use these tools with equal agility. Thus, students vary not only in their cognitive aptitude but in their proficiency in using conative tools (1998, p. 78).

By applying a questionnaire known as the Learning Combination Inventory (LCI), Johnston asserts that "teachers can measure the degree to which a student uses or avoids each pattern" (1998, p. 79). Along with the LCI survey, Johnston promotes a model of learning called the Interactive Learning Model (ILM). The LCI reveals information about individual student's cognitive and conative dispositions — which is equivalent to discovering the student's "learning style." Uncovering this natural tendency within a student can help the student learn more effectively. This allows the teacher to recognize that a student's way of learning may be quite different than how the teacher herself learns (and therefore teaches), and this creates more understanding and patience with students. As Johnston notes,

The first step in meeting the needs of learners is to understand how they learn — to recognize that organization, searching for detailed information, problem solving, and risk taking are not natural learning behaviors for all students. The next is to have students understand how they can make their unique learning patterns work for them (1998, p. 82).

That is where research into conation stands at present; it has re-entered the lexicon of educators, and is being researched to improve educational theory and practice. An important distinction that has been clarified over the last few decades is the difference between feeling motivation, and the particular way in which a person turns that feeling into activity. The earliest definition seemed to stress the why element within conation, but the latest definition of the term has evolved into stressing the how element within conation. In effect, this has allowed researchers to create studies that explore personality traits and specific patterns of action, and this approach is likely to bear fruitful results in the future.

Terms & Concepts

Affection: One of the three components that Aristotle and other theorists on the human mind have identified as comprising human personality. Affection is the part of the human psyche that feels emotions.

Aptitude: An inherent inclination and ability to use specific learning patterns in particular fields of knowledge. For example, a person with high aptitude in analysis may be naturally better at mathematics, or a person with a high aptitude in languages may be better at speaking or writing. Aptitude is also closely associated with personality traits.

Cognition: One of the three components that Aristotle and other theorists on the human mind have identified as comprising human personality. Cognition is the part of the human psyche that analyzes and processes information into thought.

Conation: One of the three components that Aristotle and other theorists on the human mind have identified as comprising human personality. Conation is the part of the human psyche that actively fulfills will. Conation is closely related to motivation and the actions that achieve objectives.

Interactive Learning Model (ILM): A learning model that views learning as a process that occurs in a personal and also social context, and occurs through a combination of factors such as motivation, cognition, emotion or affect, and attitude. The model also recognizes the individual differences in inclinations and aptitudes among students, and attempts to individualize learning according to the results of the Learning Combination Inventory.

Learning Combination Inventory (LCI): A type of self-assessment survey intended to reveal specific learning styles in students. The (LCI) is a 28-item self-report scale which consists of two parts: a written portion and 28 descriptive sentences which the learner reads and then indicates his/her responses on a five point numerical continuum (Johnston, 1998).

Learning Model: A theoretical construct that helps one understand or explain the way humans learn. There are various Learning Models, some models emphasize cognition, while others emphasize other aspects, such as experience or environment.

Personality Trait: A psychology concept that asserts specific qualities or characteristics of a person form specific personality types. Traits are an inclination to think or act in a predictable and similar way in response to a variety of different stimuli or situations.

Second Language Acquisition (SLA): In a general sense, SLA simply describes learning a second language. In educational theory, SLA is the name of the theory of the process by which we learn a second language.

Bibliography

Barbot, B., Tan, M., Randi, J., Santa-Donato, G., & Grigorenko, E.L. (2012). Essential skills for creative writing: Integrating multiple domain-specific perspectives. Thinking Skills & Creativity, 7, 209-223. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82065512&site=ehost-live

Gerdes, K. & Stromwall, L. (2008). Conation: A missing link in the strengths perspective. Social Work, 53, 233-242. Retrieved October 12, 2009 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=34924798&site=ehost-live

Handa, Y. (2012). Teasing out repetition from rote: An essay on two versions of will. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 79, 263-272. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=70119357&site=ehost-live

Huitt, W. (1999). Conation as an important factor of mind. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved October 22, 2009, from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/conation.html

Johnston, C. (1998). Using the learning combination inventory. Educational Leadership, 55, 78-82. Retrieved October 18, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87163&site=ehost-live

Kupermintz, H. (2002). Affective and conative factors as aptitude resources in high school science achievement. Educational Assessment, 8, 123-138. Retrieved October 19, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9633633&site=ehost-live

Messick, S. (1996). Bridging cognition and personality in education: the role of style in performance and development. European Journal of Personality, 10, 353-376.

Snow, R. (1996). Self-regulation as meta-conation? Learning & Individual Differences, 8, 261-268. Retrieved October 13, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9611140730&site=ehost-live

Solomonides, I. (2012). A critique of the nexus between student engagement and lifelong learning. International Journal of Continuing Education & Lifelong Learning, 5, 65-82. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=84039632&site=ehost-live

Young, R. & Perkins, K. (1995). Cognition and conation in second language acquisition theory. IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 33, 142. Retrieved October 18, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9507193287&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Hobson, R. (2008). Interpersonally situated cognition. International Journal of Philosophical Studies, 16, 377-397. Retrieved October 16, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=32794071&site=ehost-live

Peček, M. et al. (2008). Should assessment reflect only pupils' knowledge? Educational Studies (03055698), 34, 73-82. Retrieved October 26, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31701368&site=ehost-live

Poole, R. (2008). Memory, responsibility, and identity. Social Research, 75, 263-286. Retrieved October 16, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=32455572&site=ehost-live

Vande Kemp, H. (1999). Commentary on the special issue: Religion in the psychology of personality. Journal of Personality, 67, 1195-1207. Retrieved October 16, 2009 from the EBSCO online database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2697432&site=ehost-live

Essay by Sinclair Nicholas

Sinclair Nicholas, MA, holds degrees in Education and Writing and is a freelance writer with many feature articles, essays, editorials and other short works published in various publications around the world. Sinclair is the author of several books, including The AmeriCzech Dream — Stranger in a Foreign Land and the Comprehensive American-Czech Dictionary; he is a lecturer at the University of Northern Virginia — Prague, and has lived in the Czech Republic since 1991.