Credentialism

As technology- and information-based jobs increase in the Twenty-first century, there is a concomitant increase in the requirement for credentials. In some cases, this is justified. In others, it is not. Credentialism is the requirement for educational credentials for their own sake as a prerequisite for employment or for conferring social status rather than an objective emphasis on the qualifications, skills, or abilities of the person. The mere requirement for credentials for a job is not in and of itself credentialism. If the education leading to the credential is a bona fide requirement of the job and the education is used on the job, the requirement for the credential is justified. However, if the education is unrelated and required in order to exclude certain classes of people from the applicant pool, then the requirement is not valid and credentialism exists. Both the conflict and functionalist sociological perspectives speak to this issue.

Keywords Conflict Perspective; Credentialism; Demographic Data; Education; Functionalism; Grade Inflation; Human Rights Movement; Job Analysis; Job Description; Society

Credentialism

Overview

Recently, a television show contained a minor plot line that involved a man who had taken the opportunity to audit all the coursework necessary to become a physician while he had worked in the administrative offices of a medical school. He had not, however, done the concomitant clinical work nor had he ever received his medical diploma. Nonetheless, he had extensive book knowledge and considerable diagnostic skills, so he applied for a job as a medical resident in diagnostics at a teaching hospital. This being television, of course, he made important contributions to complex diagnoses but, in the end, was found out. He was offered a non-clinical job that would allow him to unofficially participate in diagnosing difficult cases. He complained that he had all the knowledge necessary to be a physician, but just did not have the degree and was being unfairly penalized.

In a real world situation, there was once a young man who had been successfully working as a programmer for a large firm for several years. His work had been outstanding and he had received raises and honors based on the quality of his performance. However, when he came up for a promotion, his employers discovered that he had never earned a college degree. Suddenly, the man was no longer viewed as an asset to the company - despite his outstanding performance on the job - and was in danger of being terminated because of his lack of a degree. He eventually enrolled in a program designed to help people currently in the work force quickly obtain degrees, and within a short time earned not only a bachelor's degree, but a doctorate as well. He voluntarily severed his relationship with the organization that had required him to earn the degree once he received it.

On another occasion, a woman wanted to make a career shift from what she was doing to become a data miner. Although she did not have the necessary education and concomitant piece of paper to say that she was capable of data mining, she had done work in this area in her previous job and had picked up some of the skill set. However, prospective employers were unwilling to consider her for a position involving data mining because she did not have the paperwork to back up her real world experience. She was unable to make the career switch without going back to school.

Finally, an individual wanted to become a consultant and inquired what the process was to become certified by a consulting organization. Not only did the organization not certify consultants (except by reputation for those employed), there are no widely accepted certification standards for consultants in his desired field (except for education and experience). As a result, any certification the person received would be essentially meaningless. Further, the person could not point to any education or experience that would be required for either certification or to be an effective consultant.

All these accounts are examples of what appears to be credentialism from the principal actor's point of view. Credentialism is a negative term used to describe the requirement of educational credentials for their own sake as a prerequisite for employment or for conferring social status in place of an objective emphasis on the qualifications, skills, or abilities of the person. In the first case, the fictional character had obtained the book knowledge necessary to solve medical mysteries. However, he did not have the concomitant clinical experience either in school or in the hospital to make him a physician. In this case, the lack of the required degree was an appropriate block to him presenting himself as a medical professional, no matter how great his book knowledge. Far from being credentialism, this is a story of an educational requirement being in place for a good reason.

The second example, however, is an obvious example of credentialism. The man not only had the skills to do the job, but had been recognized and honored for doing it outstandingly for quite some time. On the other hand, the case of the woman who wished to become a data miner may or may not have been a case of credentialism. She was widely read and had studied data mining techniques and theory on her own. She also had a finely honed and logical mind that made her an excellent candidate for a data mining position. In addition, she already was doing data mining and had a history of successful experience as a data miner. It appeared that all she lacked was the degree or certificate to say that this was true. If this is the case, the job requirements of the potential employers for a related college degree were credentialism that denied her the opportunity to work at a job she loved. However, if the college course work would have given her job skills that she did not have but were essential to the job, this was not an example of credentialism. In the last example, the applicant's focus on certification resulting from a short-term course rather than the rigorous educational and apprenticeship necessary to be a good consultant showed not the credentialism of potential employers, but the credentialism - and lack of understanding of the job - of the applicant.

Facets & Views of Credentialism

Although it is safe to say that credentialism exists, credentials are often in place for a reason. Few people would want a physician who had no practical experience and had gained all his/her knowledge of medicine from a book. On the other hand, just because someone holds a credential does not mean that the person is qualified for the job. Sometimes, employers make an educational credential (e.g., diploma, degree) a prerequisite for a job as a shortcut to defining the knowledge, skills, and abilities that a job applicant needs to be able to perform well. However, job descriptions need to be backed up with job-related requirements based on what the incumbent actually does in the job as determined by a thorough job analysis. Too often, this short cut amounts to credentialism by requiring a degree or other academic credential that is not needed. Further, sometimes people with the appropriate academic credentials are, in fact, not qualified for the job. This can be due to variations between the curricula of different schools for different degree programs or it can be a result of grade inflation. This is a situation that occurs when an excessive number of high grades are given to students or average students are given above average grades. Grade inflation effectively lowers the value of the top grades earned by higher achieving students. In such situations, academic credentials are no substitute for bona fide expertise in a job.

Conflict Theory & Credentialism

Conflict theorists take an even more cynical view of credentialism. In the conflict framework, credentialism is viewed as a tool that is used to inhibit disadvantaged or lower classes from attaining better paying jobs because they have been unable to attain a required level of education whether or not that person has the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to do the job. Therefore, according to conflict theory, credentialism allows employers and other individuals and groups higher in the social order to legally discriminate against lower classes and disadvantaged individuals on the basis of credentialism that is not directly related to a job or other position of higher social status.

Although the term credentialism is typically used pejoratively, the requirement for credentials is not necessarily a bad thing. The concern over credentialism arises out of the fact that an increasing number of employers are requiring postsecondary credentials. Although in some cases the need for a degree is necessary (e.g., physicians and many other professional positions), in other cases the requirement seems unrelated to the job (e.g., requirement for any degree - including a liberal arts degree - for an entry-level technical position where one will be taught all necessary skills on the job). Many people have questioned whether or not college degrees and other credentials (e.g., vocational certificates) actually provide individuals with the skills they need to do a job. In the cases of some professions (such as the consulting example above), a piece of paper from a certifying agency does little more than increase the profits of the agency and does nothing for increasing the skill set or employability of the individual who receives the credentials.

Functionalism & Credentialism

According to the functionalist perspective, economic and technological innovations typically require increased skills levels to perform related jobs. Further, as knowledge-based jobs increase within a society, manual labor jobs tend to decrease. This shift in general job skills (i.e., physical vs. mental skills) further increases the need for better education so that the jobs can be performed. As a result, functionalists posit that formal educational institutions must expand so that individuals can learn the skills necessary for the increasingly complex jobs. This is done in response to the industrial and economic growth of the society.

A Study of Education & Employment

In an empirical study to explore the nature of the increasing demand for postsecondary credentials, Walters (2004) examined data from the National Graduates Survey in Canada. The survey data provide information about the relationship between education and employment as well as the return on investment in education. This study looked at the relationship between education and bona fide job requirements (i.e., whether or not the individual actually used his/her education on the job). Most of the previous research in this area has focused on the relationship between education and earnings. Actual use (or nonuse) of one's education on the job is a better operational definition to discriminate between whether the requirement for a credential is necessary or an example of credentialism.

Individuals responding to the survey were grouped into six educational groupings: trade or vocational certificate, college diploma or certificate, bachelor's degree, master's degree, professional degree (e.g., physician, dentist, lawyer, pastor), and earned doctorate. Various demographic independent variables were included in the analysis as well as the field of study for each individual. Two occupational variables were also included in the analysis: full- versus part-time employment and occupation. Questions in the survey were also used to capture the extent to which an individual's educational qualifications were actually used on the job.

The results of Walters's study provide some support for the functional approach to explaining the relationship between the requirement for credentials and their use on the job. College graduates who held the educational credentials required by their employers reported a closer fit between their education and job than either those whose education did not directly match the requirements of the job or those whose jobs did not require postsecondary credentials. Contrary to the conflict perspective, the results of this study imply that educational qualifications required by employers are typically justified. However, these results applied only to degrees that were specifically related to the job. Holders of liberal arts degrees, on the other hand, typically found that that their jobs were not related to their education, thereby amounting to credentialism in the employers' hiring practices.

Applications

Credentialism in the Australian Medical Community

In an interesting case study of credentialism within the Australian medical community, Groutsis (2006) analyzed the history of credentialing physicians trained overseas. The key stakeholders in the medical community used credentialism to their advantage in defining the medical labor market. The study examined how physicians who received their medical training overseas gain access to job opportunities in Australia and how access to these opportunities is renegotiated - and the accreditation process redefined - over time as the needs of the marketplace change. Historically, the Australian Medical Council has justified its approach to accreditation of overseas-trained physicians by stating that it was upholding the standard of medical practice within the country. The results of Groutsis's examination of the data, however, do not support this position. The change in accreditation requirements appears to be a result of changes in the medical labor market rather than an issue of standards.

Regulation of Foreign Doctors

In the 1990s, it was alleged that Australia was experiencing an overcrowding in the medical marketplace, particularly in urban areas. Overseas-trained physicians were targeted as exacerbating and compounding this situation. As a result, several measures were implemented with the intention of limiting the number of overseas trained physicians in general - and permanent resident overseas trained physicians in particular - who could practice in Australia.

• The first of these comprised reduction in the number of overseas trained physicians who were allowed to enter Australia. This was done at the point of migration. However, these measures were insufficient for their purpose as overseas-trained physicians arriving on temporary visas continued to enter both the country and the labor market. In fact, data collected through this period showed that this latter class of individuals made significant contributions to the annual supply of physicians in the country and their numbers doubled in the years between 1986 and 1991. At the same time, approximately 4000 overseas-trained physicians with permanent resident status remained in various stages of a lengthy accreditation process and unable to practice. However, restrictions were also placed on the ability to work for those who arrived with temporary visas. Individuals in this group were allowed to stay no longer than two years and were restricted from entering private practice. This group was also prohibited from taking the Australian Medical Council credentialing examination, so could not apply for permanent residency based on occupational status.

• The second measure implemented was designed to reduce the number of overseas-trained physicians who were permanent residents who were able to pass the Australian Medical Council examination and thus able to enter the medical workforce. The examination required Council-approved accreditation of English proficiency from followed by a multiple choice test of medical knowledge and a practical test of clinical skills. To ensure the restriction of overseas-trained physicians who could pass this series of hurdles, a quota system was put in place. Although before this point, admission to the final (clinical) phase of the accreditation process was made on a pass/fail basis for the multiple choice examination, those who had passed were ranked ordered based on their scores and only the top performers were allowed to proceed to the next phase of the process. This requirement severely restricted the number of physicians completing the accreditation process, a situation that changed dramatically once the quota was lifted. This was done in part as the result of a suit filed with the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. The Commission found that the quota system and the nature of the examination process contravened basic human rights on the legal basis of race discrimination.

• The third measure implemented placed restrictions on the ability of permanent resident overseas-trained physicians to bill Medicare for a period of ten years. This barrier to successful medical practice was attached once an overseas-trained physician had passed the other hurdles. This restriction targeted permanent resident physicians who had been trained overseas and was implemented to directly control the movement of medical professionals in particular locations.

A Revision of the Process

Starting in the late 1990s, the medical employment landscape changed and severe shortages of personnel occurred; first in some regional and rural areas and, more recently, in urban and suburban areas as well. As a result, there was a shift in policies for accreditation of overseas-trained physicians. Assessment and accreditation procedures have been reassessed and there are now several paths for assessment and accreditation of overseas-trained physicians. In addition, temporary resident physicians no longer need to enter the assessment and examination process in order to be accredited and enter into the labor market. Permanent resident overseas-trained physicians now also have access to areas of need once they have completed the screening process. Permanent resident overseas-trained physicians are still restricted from billing Medicare for 10 years. However, exemptions are granted for those working in areas in which there is a shortage of physicians.

Conclusion

Credentialism is the requirement for educational credentials for their own sake as a prerequisite for employment or for conferring social status in place of an objective emphasis on the qualifications, skills, or abilities of the person. As technology- and information-based jobs increase in the twenty-first century, there is a concomitant increase in the requirement for credentials. In some cases, this is justified. In others, it is not.

On the one hand, it is easy to make accusations of credentialism when one does not truly understand the actual requirements for a position or is trying to obtain a job for which s/he is not qualified. On the other hand, it is easy to add the requirement of a credential to a job description in order to forego the hard work of actually analyzing the job to determine whether or not the credential is an actual job requirement. Neither approach is appropriate. The mere requirement for credentials for a job is not in and of itself credentialism. If the education leading to the credential is a true requirement of the job and is used on the job, the requirement for the credential is justified. However, if the education is unrelated and required merely in order to exclude certain classes of people, then the requirement is not valid and credentialism exists.

Terms & Concepts

Conflict Perspective: An approach to analyzing social behavior that is based on the assumption that social behavior is best explained and understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.

Credentialism: The requirement for educational credentials for their own sake as a prerequisite for employment or for conferring social status rather than an objective emphasis on the qualifications, skills, or abilities of the person.

Demographic Data: Statistical information about a given subset of the human population such as persons living in a particular area, shopping at an area mall, or subscribing to a local newspaper. Demographic data might include such information as age, gender, or income distribution.

Education: From a sociological perspective, education is a formal learning process in which some individuals take on the social role of teacher and others take on the social role of student.

Grade Inflation: The situation in which an excessive number of high grades are given to students or average students are given above average grades. Grade inflation effectively lowers the value of the top grades earned by higher achieving students.

Functionalism: A theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of social order and the relationship between the various parts (structures) in society and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole. Also referred to as structural functionalism.

Human Rights Movement: An international movement that promotes the cause of human rights throughout the globe. According to Article 1 of the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights: "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood."

Job Analysis: The systematic, empirical process of determining the exact nature of a job, including the tasks and duties to be done; the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to adequately perform these; and the criteria that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable performance. The results of a job analysis are typically used in writing job descriptions and setting standards for use in performance appraisals.

Job Description: A document that lists the duties and tasks related to a job. Job descriptions may also specify the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary to do the job as well as the performance standards that differentiate acceptable from unacceptable performance.

Operational Definition: A definition that is stated in terms that can be observed and measured.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Variable: An object in a research study that can have more than one value. Independent variables are stimuli that are manipulated in order to determine their effect on the dependent variables (response). Extraneous variables are variables that affect the response but that are not related to the question under investigation in the study.

Bibliography

Andersen, M. L. & Taylor, H. F. (2002). Sociology: Understanding a diverse society. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Bills, D. B., & Brown, D. K. (2011). New directions in educational credentialism. Research In Social Stratification & Mobility, 29, 1-4. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60439373

Groutsis, D. (2006). Geography and credentialism: The assessment and accreditation of overseas-trained doctors. Health sociology Review, 15 , 59-70. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=20589193&site=ehost-live

Lin, C., & Lin, C. (2012). Does higher education expansion reduce credentialism and gender discrimination in education?. Social Indicators Research, 109, 279-293. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=82052263

Rivera, L. A. (2011). Ivies, extracurriculars, and exclusion: Elite employers' use of educational credentials. Research In Social Stratification & Mobility, 29, 71-90. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60439377

Walters, D. (2004). The relationship between postsecondary education and skill: Comparing credentialism with the human capital theory. Conference Papers - American Sociological Association 2004 Annual Meeting, San Francisco, 1-20. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=15928715&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Baker, D. P. (2011). Forward and backward, horizontal and vertical: Transformation of occupational credentialing in the schooled society. Research In Social Stratification & Mobility, 29, 5-29. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=60439374

Brown, D. K. (2001). The social sources of educational credentialism: Status, cultures, labor markets, and organizations. Sociology of Education, 74 , 19-34. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=5486692&site=ehost-live

Fuller, A. (2001). Credentialism, adults and part-time higher education in the United Kingdom: An account of rising take up and some implications for policy. Journal of Educational Policy, 16 , 233-248. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=4757749&site=ehost-live

Fuller, A. & Unwin, L. (1999). Credentialism, national target, and the learning society: Perspectives on educational attainment in the UK steel industry. Journal of Education Policy, 14 , 605-617. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=3818799&site=ehost-live

Hunter, A. A. & Leiper, J. M. (1993). On formal education, skills and earnings: The role of educational certificates in earnings determination. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 18 , 21-42. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=10074338&site=ehost-live

Killeen, J., Turton, R., Diamond, W., Dosnon, O., & Wach, M. (1999). Education and the labour market: Subjective aspects of human capital investment. Journal of Education Policy, 14 , 99-116. Retrieved June 10, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=3818771&site=ehost-live

Sakamoto, A., Takei, I., & Woo, H. (2012). The myth of the model minority myth. Sociological Spectrum, 32, 309-321. Retrieved October 24, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=76911535