Cross-dressing
Cross-dressing refers to the practice of wearing clothing and accessories traditionally associated with the opposite sex. This practice varies significantly across cultures and is influenced by regional gender norms and historical contexts. Historically, cross-dressing has been utilized for ceremonial, theatrical, and recreational purposes, with notable examples found in ancient civilizations such as Greece, Egypt, and China. In ancient Greek culture, cross-dressing was common in theater and religious rituals, while Chinese legends like that of Hua Mulan celebrated women disguising themselves as men for bravery and duty.
Despite its historical significance, cross-dressing has often faced societal taboo and persecution, particularly in the context of public life. In modern times, efforts for fair treatment and acceptance have gained traction, particularly in Western cultures where the emergence of drag shows has helped reshape perceptions. However, cross-dressing remains controversial and is still legally restricted in some regions, including parts of the Middle East and conservative areas of the United States. In contrast, certain cultures, such as those in Thailand, have embraced cross-dressing, integrating it into their entertainment sectors. Overall, the cultural response to cross-dressing continues to evolve, reflecting broader societal attitudes towards gender identity and expression.
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Subject Terms
Cross-dressing
Cross-dressing is a term used to describe the donning of apparel and accessories that are primarily associated with the opposite sex of the person wearing the items. Cross-dressing appears differently in various parts of the world depending on each region's gender norms and cultural traditions. Throughout history, cross-dressing has been used for a range of purposes. The peoples of ancient Greece, Egypt, and China were known to engage in cross-dressing for ceremonial and recreational activities. Cross-dressing has also been a common feature in the theater arts for many centuries. Outside of ritual and entertainment, cross-dressing was historically considered mostly taboo in public life. In modern times, however, cross-dressers have advocated for fairer treatment and greater tolerance. Although cross-dressing has often been identified with sexual activities such as fetishism and assumed to connote gender identity, the act itself does not imply sexual or gender preferences.
Background
People have been engaging in cross-dressing since ancient times. Stories of cross-dressing individuals can be found in ancient Egyptian, Greek, Norse, Hindu, and Chinese records. In Norse mythology, Thor, the god of thunder, once dressed as a woman to trick a thieving giant and recover his prized hammer. According to ancient Greek mythology, many Greek gods often disguised themselves as the opposite sex to evade notice or capture. Greek theater routinely featured cross-dressing actors. Greek historians also describe encountering cross-dressing peoples in their travels, notably cross-dressing shamans and other religious figures from other cultures. Scholars such as Hippocrates and Herodotus attempted to figure out an explanation for these cross-dressing habits, blaming factors such as disease and curses.
Cross-dressing was an aspect of some ancient Greek religious rituals and ceremonies. Various Greek cults engaged in cross-dressing for symbolic purposes. Cross-dressing was also an element of the marriage ceremonies of certain regions of ancient Greece and Rome. Spartan brides shaved their heads and dressed in male clothing on their wedding night. The woman could not resume her place in female society until she became pregnant, proving her womanhood. Brides in Argos wore a false beard on their wedding night, and grooms of Cos wore a woman's dress when receiving their new bride.
Outside ancient Greece and Rome, ancient Chinese society also held cross-dressing customs. Chinese operas regularly featured cross-dressing men and women. Cross-dressing was also part of the Chinese legend of Hua Mulan. Mulan was the daughter of an elderly soldier who was chosen to fight the Huns. Mulan took the place of her aging father in battle by cross-dressing in men's clothing. A sixth-century poem titled "The Ballad of Mulan" made the tale famous. Centuries later, the story of Hua Mulan was adapted into a popular animated film by Walt Disney Studios.
Cross-dressing characters appeared in a number of poems, books, operas, and plays throughout the centuries. Cross-dressing was frequently featured in the plays of Elizabethan playwright William Shakespeare. Thirty-eight of Shakespeare's plays feature the act, which is mainly undertaken by female characters to hide their true identity or engage in tasks forbidden of women. Outside the theater, however, cross-dressing was usually persecuted in England and cross-dressing men and women were often punished for their behavior.
Overview
Throughout the modern era, cross-dressing remained a part of various cultures around the world despite its routine persecution. Some indigenous North American tribes had members known as two-spirits, individuals who identified as neither male nor female and dressed in the attire of both sexes. European colonizers found these practices taboo, however, and many two-spirited people were victimized by white settlers. European notions of cross-dressing dominated cultural attitudes in North America in the decades following colonization, and anti-cross-dressing measures eventually emerged within state laws. The laws did not deter some women from cross-dressing as men to join the army, however. During the American Revolution and the Civil War, hundreds of soldiers were discovered to be cross-dressing women.
Around the 1940s, laws specifically prohibiting men from cross-dressing as women began cropping up across the United States. Advocates eventually began challenging laws against cross-dressing in the 1970s, and many states were overturning these outdated laws throughout the later twentieth century. Cross-dressing remained subject to criminalization in some of the more conservative areas of the country, however, and the act was still forbidden in small corners of states such as Louisiana well into the 2000s.
As the limitations surrounding gender roles became more relaxed in the United States, cross-dressing became more widely accepted. Cross-dressers still experienced harassment, but the act was no longer a punishable crime. The growing popularity of drag shows, events in which men and women dress up in elaborate costumes designed for his or her opposite sex, brought cross-dressing into a more positive spotlight.
In other areas of the world, cross-dressing is still persecuted. Saudi Arabia harbors strict dress code laws that ban men from cross-dressing. Saudi Arabia also has strict dress codes for women, who are required to cover their entire bodies in a niqab and long cloak called an abaya. Other areas, such as Sudan, have fined men for wearing makeup and convicted them of indecency.
Alongside the social progress in the West, a number of South Asian countries also became mostly accepting of cross-dressers in modern times. Thailand was one of the first Asian countries to widely accept the custom of cross-dressing. Individuals known as kathoey—men who identified as male but dressed as females—became a common feature of the country's entertainment and tourism industries. Cross-dressing also found use in the Middle East. Some families chose to cross-dress their young daughters in boys' clothes to allow them more freedoms and educational opportunities. Although cross-dressing advocacy continued to see advancement in many regions of the world throughout the twenty-first century, underlying social prejudices continued to affect the cultural reaction to cross-dressing.
Bibliography
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Gewertz, Ken. "When Men Were Men (and Women, Too)." Harvard Gazette, 17 July 2003, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2003/07/when-men-were-men-and-women-too/. Accessed 10 Feb. 2018.
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