Digital distribution

Overview

Digital distribution is the transfer of electronic files by means of the Internet, USB drive, or other electronic storage media. This method makes it possible to quickly send large files, but also opens up the possibility that files will be sent to unauthorized users, hacked, pirated, or otherwise distributed beyond their intended audiences. Some digital distribution occurs peer-to-peer while other digital distribution methods involve large social media or archival platforms (Balbi & Magaudda, 2018). Digital distribution has become more common as individuals have acquired personal computers and mobile devices and fast Internet connections, which enable quick data transfer. The speeding up of Internet access and development of personal computing devices have encouraged the development of television and movie streaming companies, digital libraries, and software archives. Developers have also worked to establish new ways to allow users to download some content, such as apps. Other developers have worked on ways to stream files, such as music and video, without letting the end user download the file. For some scholars, the ability to digitally distribute files has produced a "golden age" for consumers of arts and culture, with advantages that outweigh the problems that go along with file sharing (Waldfogel, 2017).

Before digital distribution, movies and music were shared through magnetic tapes, such as VHS tapes for movies and cassette tapes for music or audio files. These tapes were editable and reproducible, but limited distribution to a one at a time sharing method. Optical storage in the form of compact discs, digital video discs, and Blu-ray discs replaced magnetic tape but retained essentially the same distribution limitations. While early analog technologies, including vinyl records, continued to be used after digital distribution, they appealed chiefly to a subculture that values the nostalgia or particular characteristics of pre-digital data distribution and transfer (Herbert, 2017). The vast potential of digital distribution, however, has resulted in its integration into the global economy and created both benefits and criminal activity on an international scale.

Digital distribution makes it possible for producers and users to share files with many users all at once. The ability to share so much information so quickly has prompted many questions regarding the legality of sharing, the rights of a consumer who has purchased a digital file, and the rights of the consumer to edit the data they have purchased. There are also questions regarding the rights of artists, who digitally distribute their images and music files to fee-paying customers, but then find that their files have been distributed to additional users who have not paid for access.

Further Insights

New business models have emerged to allow artists and authors to receive payment for their digitally distributed works. Some methods have been more successful than others, and some early models of payment and file sharing have become outdated. For example, Chen, Hu, and Smith's (2018) study of book sales compares the distribution of print books as opposed to digital files. They found that new platforms for distributing books, such as Amazon's Kindle e-books and e-book readers have resulted in debates over how to sell the largest number of books. Some publishers have argued that releasing the print book first, and a digital book later will ensure that consumers continue to purchase print books. However, Chen, Hu, and Smith showed that delaying the release of digital books dramatically reduces the sale of digital files, while having no effect on the sale of print copies. This produces the possibility that a new economy for media has emerged in which traditional business models no longer apply or are helpful in predicting sales and consumer behavior.

Musical artists have examined a number of different methods to distribute their work, ensure that their copyright is protected, and gain payment for their work. Digital distribution has made it easier for musicians to distribute their work, gaining new fans from around the world. However, digital distribution has also radically changed the distribution method. It is no longer necessary for an artist to sign on with a large record label that will manufacture recordings in the form of some tangible medium. Instead, artists can directly send their new work to fans, they can post their files to web pages and message boards, and they can have their work played through music streaming sites. These changes have reduced the power of music labels. Artists are no longer dependent on music labels for distribution, and musicians who could not get a contract with a music label can become successful. They can make their music available on Apple Music and Spotify using a music distribution service.

All of this increases accessibility, but it also limits the ways that an artist can control the distribution of their work and receive payment for their productions. Scholars have studied the ways that music streaming has changed consumer behaviors. They have found that while consumers begin streaming only music that they have listened to before digital distribution, within six months they are listening to an increasingly diverse variety of music. This change in listening behavior has made it possible for musicians to reach new audiences as well as for audiences to find a wide variety of music that may not have been previously available in their local music store or on the radio. This is particularly important for those in rural areas where radio and store offerings may have been limited.

Problems have occurred as concertgoers are able to record live performances and digitally distribute those performances, often without the permission of the performing artist. These unauthorized videos are distressing to artists for several reasons. They are not able to control the way that their performances are recorded, edited, or distributed. Potential fans might be lost, not because of the music itself but because the low quality of the recording gave a poor first impression. Distribution of an "off-night" performance can further alienate listeners, as well as embarrass the artists. Further, performers are not able to receive payment for the digital distribution of their work, diminishing their ability to make a living as artists. As sales of commercially released recordings have diminished, artists have become more dependent on concertgoers to make an income. The ability to listen to a concert, without having to purchase a ticket to that concert, has affected ticket sales, which in turn reduces the amount of money that artists receive for their work (Papies & van Heerde, 2017).

Films are also increasingly distributed digitally. File sharing platforms such as those provided by Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon allow consumers to instantly access a database of films and television programs. This increases the number of films that can be seen, but also limits the films consumers can watch at home to those that are approved by the file sharing platforms. This has had an effect on small filmmakers who have to design new methods to access consumers. As film viewers have begun to watch movies at home as opposed to in theaters, small movie houses have closed. These smaller, often independent theaters are often the only places to see independently produced films. Kehoe and Mateer (2015) have studied the way that these changes have affected the production and distribution of independent films in the United Kingdom. They argue that while independent filmmakers have had to adapt their methods of marketing and distribution, in some cases this has been a positive improvement as the filmmakers can now focus on producing films that directly appeal to consumers rather than having to first appeal to small movie houses, which would then advertise the film to consumers.

For the producers of television programs, digital distribution has had a significant effect on the ways in which episodic television is viewed. While previously viewers had to wait a period of time, usually a week, between episodes, they are now able to watch, or "binge," an entire season in a weekend. This change in the way that television is watched has changed the how episodes are produced. For example, it is no longer necessary to remind viewers what occurred in the last episode because they have either just watched the episode or can quickly play it back to refresh their memories. The compressed window in which viewers watch shows has prompted television producers to increase their attention to detail and continuity in the story line.

As digital distribution platforms have gained customers, and as such gained funding, they have begun producing their own content. For example, Netflix once only distributed digital media files, but it now produces its own series and films, adding value to subscribers who can only see their favorite programs if they have a Netflix subscription. This is also true of Hulu, Amazon, and YouTube. Scholars, such as Radosinska (2017) are examining these changes in what they call a "post-television" era where television-like media is produced but distributed in radical new ways.

Software is often commonly digitally distributed, adding advantages to consumers who can quickly add new programs and updates to their personal computing devices. Distributing software by way of the Internet also introduces considerable risks to consumers, who may inadvertently download malware—malicious software—that can damage or highjack operating systems or otherwise compromise users' data security. The risk of data security breaches has been demonstrated through the release of educational information, personal data, and medical data throughout the world. While many programs have been developed to assist in the safe and secure transfer of data, there is always a risk that data will be sent to unknown or unintended users. Once this data has been distributed, it is often impossible to retrieve or remove from online databases. Gangadharan (2017) argues that underserved communities are at the largest risk of privacy beaches. This occurs because they are very interested in the types of information that can be sent through digital distribution. For many poor or rural Internet users, this is the first time that they have had access to a wide assortment of information. However, when they first encounter digital archives they are at risk of entering too much information, or trusting nefarious sites in order to access digital files. This is due to what scholars call "digital illiteracy." To combat these problems, many libraries, schools, and other social service offices have developed courses to encourage individuals to engage in the many opportunities that digital distribution enables while protecting users' own data privacy.

Issues

Contemporary scholars are concerned with the ways that digital distribution presses our understanding of how information is shared, edited, and owned. Scholars frequently debate the concept of "piracy," or the illegal distribution of copyrighted and other protected "intellectual property." Illegal distribution includes the sharing of movies, music, books, and any other type of digital file which one does not have permission to share.

Debates have occurred over who owns a file and what reasonable sharing of a file entails. For example, a physical book, once purchased, can be passed between friends, but a digital book file cannot. Early debates about digital distribution focused on this difference. Perhaps the most famous early case was the file sharing platform Napster, which enabled the quick digital distribution of music and movies using peer-to-peer digital distribution. Napster encountered many legal challenges pertaining to copyright infringement and was sued in 2000 by artists such as Metallica and Dr. Dre for illegally distributing entire albums of their work. The resulting court case resulted in the short-term closure of Napster and the establishment of several court rulings that have set the standard for future digital distribution. Napster eventually changed from peer-to-peer sharing to a digital store. Both methods allow for digital distribution of files, but the difference in how files are accessed and paid for demonstrates the changes that have affected digital distribution. The same problem has affected other types of digitally distributed data, such as software installation and update files. Software developers have focused on developing ways to entice consumers to pay for digitally transferred files. The problem for all digital distributors is that, while the Napster court cases clarified that it was illegal to transfer files in a peer-to-peer format, it is very difficult for companies to actually regulate peer-to-peer digital distribution.

Despite changes to regulation and business models, file sharing continues to be blamed for the falling profits of music and movie companies (Morris, 2015). At the center of these arguments is copyright infringement, commonly called digital piracy. A copyright is granted for intellectual property such as texts, music, videos, architecture, and software. Copyrights are not automatic, they must be filed with the U.S. copyright office, or with the copyright office in the nation where the item was produced. Internationally, there are many laws governing how long copyrights last and what happens when they are broken. Copyright violations occur when a copyright protected work is used without permission from the creator and/or their agents. Digital distribution makes it very easy to break copyright rules. Copyright violations include unauthorized file transfer or reproduction and song sampling or video re-editing without attribution to the original creator. While scholars often agree that piracy is illegal, they do debate the motivation behind piracy (Park, Kang & Oh, 2018) and find that many digital pirates have no intention to cause harm to other users, creators, or corporations. Knowing that users intend to act in a moral way while also digitally distributing and sharing files has encouraged companies to design campaigns that highlight the monetary and social harms of digital piracy. Communication scholars play a key role in both understanding these changes to digital distribution and working with companies to ensure that digital distribution occurs in an ethical manner.

Bibliography

Balbi, G., & Magaudda, P. (2018). A history of digital media: An intermedia and global perspective. New York: Routledge.

Chen, H., Hu, Y. J., & Smith, M. D. (2018). The impact of e-book distribution on print sales: Analysis of a natural experiment. Management Science. doi: 10.1287/mnsc.2017.2940

Durant, C. (2022, Apr. 4). The changing role of music distribution in 2022. EDM.com, https://edm.com/industry/the-changing-role-of-a-music-distributor-in-2022

Gangadharan, S. P. (2017). The downside of digital inclusion: Expectations and experiences of privacy and surveillance among marginal Internet users. New Media & Society, 19(4), 597–615. doi:10.1177/1461444815614053

Herbert, D. (2017). Nostalgia merchants: VHS distribution in the era of digital delivery. Journal of Film & Video, 69(2), 3–19.

Kehoe, K., & Mateer, J. (2015). The impact of digital technology on the distribution value chain model of independent feature films in the UK. JMM: The International Journal on Media Management, 17(2), 93–108.

Morris, J. W. (2015). Anti-market research: Piracy, new media metrics, and commodity communities. Popular Communication, 13(1), 32–44.

Papies, D., & van Heerde, H. J. (2017). The dynamic interplay between recorded music and live concerts: The role of piracy, unbundling, and artist characteristics. Journal of Marketing, 81(4), 67–87.

Park, N., Kang, N., & Oh, H. S. (2018). Examining intention of digital piracy: An integration of social norms and ethical ideologies. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society. doi: 10.1108/JICES-11-2016-0043

Radosinka, J. (2017). New trends in production and distribution of episodic television drama: Brand Marvel-Netflix in the post-television era. Communication Today, 8(1), 4–29.

Shan, W. (2022, 17 Mar.) Digital streaming media distribution and transmission process optimisation based on adaptive recurrent neural network. Connection Science, pp. 1169–1180, doi.org/10.1080/09540091.2022.2052264

Waldfogel, J. (2017). How digitization has created a golden age of music, movies, books, and television. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(3), 195–214.