Enlightenment Roots

This article will focus on the Enlightenment roots of sociology. This article will provide a description of key Enlightenment philosophers including Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Jeremy Bentham. The connections between these philosophers and contemporary social thought will be highlighted. Enlightenment theories of naturalism, utilitarianism, social contract, and categorical imperative will be described. A discussion of the ways in which sociological thought has borrowed from and built on Enlightenment-era ideas and philosophy will be included. Descriptions of the European Enlightenment, including its connections to the Scientific Revolution and its adherence to rationality and logic, will be included throughout the article.

Keywords Categorical Imperative; Enlightenment; Naturalism; Rationality; Scientific Method; Scientific Revolution; Social Contract; Society; Sociology; Structure; Utilitarianism

Enlightenment Roots

Overview

The field of sociology has its roots in the age of the Enlightenment. The age of the Enlightenment refers to the seventeenth and eighteenth century philosophical and intellectual movement in Europe founded on the belief that reason would lead to objective and universal truths. The European Enlightenment ended with the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789. Enlightenment-era philosophers challenged the power and legitimacy of the institutions of their day, despite the threat of persecution (Green, 1990).

The European Enlightenment was precipitated by a period of extreme growth in scientific knowledge called the Scientific Revolution, which occurred during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Modern scientific thought emerged during the Scientific Revolution. For example, Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) developed his theories about gravity and motion and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) studied the solar system and discovered that the Earth was not at the center of the universe. The Scientific Revolution nurtured the invention of new methods and tools including the scientific method and the telescope, microscope, air pump, and thermometer.

The Scientific Revolution changed how scientists and thinkers in other fields approached the world. As a result of the Scientific Revolution, intellectuals looked for rules of regularity and balance, first in the physical and then the social and political world. The methods for scientific discovery and inquiry developed during the Scientific Revolution to study the physical world were used in the Enlightenment to gather information and knowledge about all areas of life. Enlightenment thinkers believed that knowledge gained through scientific means would be more accurate than knowledge gained through non-scientific observation and assumption. The Scientific Revolution and the European Enlightenment influenced the understanding and study of political, economic, and social behavior and thought.

Enlightenment thinkers desired to reform society and government for the betterment of all humanity. They believed that natural laws rather than arbitrary rules should govern behavior. Ultimately, Enlightenment thought was based on three principles:

• That the universe is governed by natural rather than supernatural law;

• That the scientific method can answer fundamental questions in all areas of inquiry; and

• That the human race can be taught to achieve infinite improvement (Mills & Woods, 1996).

Enlightenment philosophy was characterized by a faith in order, rigor, logic, and human rationality. Rationality refers to the idea that all beliefs and phenomena can be explained in accordance with logical principles. Believing that reason would eventually triumph over humanity's uncivilized and animalistic tendencies, the Enlightenment thinkers sought objective and scientific facts of human nature, marginalizing discussion of subjective experience, tradition, habits, history, or culture. These subjects were considered to be irrational forces that could not contribute to the era's larger projects of expanding human knowledge and truth. Enlightenment thought implied that humans, society, and history would reach fulfillment when humans learned to control their passions and drives (Verheggen, 1996).

Enlightenment narratives provided a foundation for the development of nineteenth and twentieth century sociological thought and practice. Enlightenment ideas, including the concern for just rule; the belief in scientific inquiry and empirical knowledge; the role of structure in predicting and controlling human behavior; and the connection between private property, oppression, and inequality, were particularly influential on fin de siècle intellectuals like Herbert Spencer, Émile Durkheim, Georg Simmel, and Karl Marx. The enduring and influential sociopolitical theories of utilitarianism, Marxism, and social contract are all products of Enlightenment thought (Chatterjee, 2004).

Understanding the Enlightenment roots of sociology is vital background for all those interested in sociology as well as the history of social theory as a whole. This article explains the Enlightenment roots of sociology in two parts:

• A description of key Enlightenment philosophers including Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Jeremy Bentham.

• A discussion of the ways in which sociological thought has borrowed from and built on Enlightenment-era ideas and philosophy.

Further Insights

Enlightenment Philosophers

Enlightenment thinkers, particularly those who lived through the pre-revolution years in France, were concerned with the problems of reality, knowledge, liberty, consensus, structure, agency, and order. "How is society held together?" they asked. Enlightenment philosophers worked to make sense of human behavior and society during the years of the Enlightenment and through the French Revolution.

Enlightenment theorists developed solutions to the problem of order. For example, Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau developed social contract theory as a means of explaining the mechanism of social order. The social contract, a philosophical exploration of structure and agency, refers to the hypothesis that people in a state of nature would consent to be governed. The classic social contract, an amalgamation of the theories developed by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, is the belief that the legitimacy of government is derived from an agreement between individual human beings to surrender their private rights in order to secure the protection of a powerful society or government.

Enlightenment thinkers also theorized about how people lived before or outside of society or government rule. They developed the concept of the state of nature (the hypothetical condition in which people lived before forming societies and governments) to explain people in their most natural, non-ruled state of being, as well as the concept of the state of society (the condition in which people live within societies and under governments) to explain how and why people give up part of their freedom to live under the protection of a society or government (Jackson, 2006).

The Enlightenment-era philosophers described below, including Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and Jeremy Bentham, illustrate the Enlightenment's concern for just rule, scientific inquiry, and empirical knowledge (as seen in the use of the scientific method); the role of structure in predicting and controlling human behavior; and the connection between private property, oppression, and inequality.

Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), was a philosopher who explored authoritarianism, rule, indoctrination, coercion, and obedience. His work continues to influence contemporary political sociology and political thought in general. Hobbes developed his theory of the social contract, as described in The Leviathan, as a way of justifying the existence of government rules and laws. Hobbes had great respect for individual reason and believed true political allegiance comes only after individuals understand the basis of a sovereign's claim to leadership. He believed that the government's role in society is justified by a social contract between people and their leaders. In Hobbes' view, the social contract is an agreement between individuals to live peacefully and to be unified under a government that facilitates peace. For the social contract to provide a stable government, individuals must submit themselves to enforcement mechanisms that Hobbes referred to as "the sword of the sovereignty." According to Hobbes, for government to work, leaders must display transparency in all of their social and political actions (Waldron, 2001).

John Locke

John Locke (1632–1704) believed in the inalienable rights of human beings. Natural law, according to him, guarantees that all men are created equal. Locke felt that all people have innate natural goodness that will manifest itself in the creation of a just and balanced society. He viewed the social contract between government and society as a necessary outgrowth of the need to protect families and private property. His vision of political society was an "army" of men who represent their families and unite in a commitment to punish those who transgress against themselves, their families, or their property. John Locke believed rule should be based on natural laws as opposed to arbitrary authority. Governments must make and enforce just laws that serve all people. Government, according to Locke, is responsible for creating an environment that enables all citizens to reach their full potential. Locke's theory of government provides justification for setting limits on the power of government and granting citizens the right to revolt when government oversteps these limits (Mills & Woods, 1996).

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) studied the relationship between human society and the natural world. Building on the work of Hobbes and Locke, he developed his own version of the social contract as a compact between society and government that remedies the social and moral ills (e.g., shame, envy, and pride) that are produced by the development of society. To remediate the problem of social corruption, Rousseau worked to reestablish the integrity of human nature and to promote a new society. In one of his most well-known works, Discourse on the Origins of Inequality, he depicts man's corruption as, through society, his primitive innocence is replaced with jealousy, self-hatred, and the desire to gain power over others. According to Rousseau, reason emerges from nature, not society. He believed people are born free in a state of nature but are then corrupted by their social history or circumstance. According to Rousseau, people can overcome this corruption by rebuilding themselves as political actors with strong democratic principles. His notion of "self-rule" influenced the development of both American democracy and international governing bodies (Cox, 1996).

David Hume

David Hume (1711–1776), a key actor in the Scottish Enlightenment, developed a philosophy of naturalism based on the notion that reality can only be investigated with the scientific method. Hume, along with Adam Smith, author of The Wealth of Nations, defined the direction and developments of the Scottish Enlightenment. David Hume, and the eighteenth century Scottish Enlightenment as a whole, explored the relationship between commercial society, self-interest, and personal relationships. Hume's work on personal relationships has influenced social theories of friendships and relationships for the last two hundred years (Silver, 1990).

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was a German philosopher who believed actions are just if they are motivated by duty rather than profit or gain. His work continues to influence contemporary conceptions of morality and punishment. Kant wrote about his theory of the categorical imperative in The Metaphysics of Morals. A categorical imperative refers to Kant's belief that all people have one central imperative that dictates all of their duties and obligations. Kant's philosophy of the categorical imperative attempts to make morality a universal principal (Baghai, 2006).

Jeremy Bentham

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), an English philosopher, developed the ethical philosophy of utilitarianism. Utilitarianism, often considered a guide to moral behavior, promotes the belief that acts must be judged based solely on their results. Bentham wrote of his ethical stances in Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislations, and his principle of utilitarianism continues to influence contemporary conceptions of morality, behavior, and punishment (Baghai, 2006).

Discourse

Sociology's Roots in Enlightenment Thought

Nineteenth and twentieth century social theorists have borrowed critical ideas from Enlightenment-era thought, including the equality of all people, just rule, the importance of scientific inquiry and knowledge, the role of structure in predicting and controlling human behavior, and the connection between private property, oppression, and inequality. Classical sociology of the nineteenth century, building on Enlightenment thought and practice, is characterized by rationality, scientific inquiry, and a belief in empirical truths. Like Enlightenment-era thinkers, the key theorists of classical sociology belonged to the diverse fields of religion, ethics, philosophy, law, and economics. Early European sociologists were concerned with the systematic study of patterns of social behavior and the rapid social change created by industrialization and modernization. Classical sociology was concerned with the organization and behavior of complex industrial societies.

Sociology's foundations can be found in the rational empiricism of the Enlightenment, as well as the political, economic, and social upheaval and sociopolitical change of nineteenth century Europe. European intellectuals, including Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Émile Durkheim, and Georg Simmel, developed the basic tenets of sociology to help explain the social change they saw around them (D'Antonio, 1992). Nineteenth century social theorists, much like the Enlightenment philosophers, sought to understand why sociopolitical change was happening and whether the changes were harmful or beneficial to society. European intellectuals, philosophers, politicians, historians, and social scientists worked to understand and, in some instances, halt the sociopolitical changes that occurred in nineteenth century Europe.

The influence of the Enlightenment era's scientific thinking can be seen in the work of classical sociologist Herbert Spencer. Spencer (1820–1903), an English sociologist and philosopher, believed that societies move from simple to complex. Spencer, a functionalist, believed that social structures function to meet the needs of society. Spencer developed his theory of social Darwinism, and the related phrase "survival of the fittest," to argue that only the fittest members of a society survive and succeed. In addition, Spencer developed a theory of the superorganic, or the elements of society beyond individuals that account for group behavior. This theory later influenced Durkheim's theory of collective conscience. Spencer's published three volumes of work: Principles of Sociology (1896), Descriptive Sociology (1873-81) and The Study of Sociology (1873). In Principles of Sociology, Spencer attempted to explain in a scientific manner the relations, coexistence, and sequence among social phenomena. Spencer's scientific approach to the study of social phenomena and society, with roots in Enlightenment thought and practice, influenced the direction of the fields of both sociology and anthropology (Carneiro & Perrin, 2003).

Enlightenment thinkers were the first to conceptualize knowledge, personality, and consciousness as a social product. Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau felt that oppression and inequality are created by the acquisition and ownership of private property and believed that people are shaped by both nature and society. This Enlightenment concern for the effects of private property can be seen in the works of German philosopher and economist Karl Marx (1818–1883), who was one of the first nineteenth-century scholars to identify society as a system of social relationships. He studied processes of worker alienation and objectification and developed a theory of worker alienation that argued that workers experience a lack of control and self-realization in the labor process. Marx believed economics is the primary force that shapes society. He argued that the system of capitalism creates societies in which the increasing value of the material world devalues people and society. Marx believed the history of human society is primarily shaped by economic conflict between owners and laborers. He also worked to discover how the disenfranchised could create social change to improve their social and financial situations. Social change, according to Marx, could only occur through conflict between workers and the dominant classes (Yuill, 2005).

Enlightenment philosophy bequeathed the notion to classical sociologists, and social scientists in general, that social structure influences and predicts actions. The Enlightenment era's concern for social structure can be seen in the work of classical sociologists Émile Durkheim and Georg Simmel. For example, Durkheim (1855–1917) was concerned with the problem of the individual in society as well as issues of solidarity and social cohesion. According to Durkheim, it is people's social roles or functions that hold society together. He developed the theories of organic solidarity, which relates the bonds of a population of people with their employment, labor, and social roles, and mechanical solidarity, the bonding of a small group of people around similar interests, values, and beliefs. Over the course of his life, Durkheim moved from a macro focus on structural processes to a micro focus on social, psychological, and interpersonal processes such as co-presence, ritual, interaction, and emotional arousal. To learn how individuals relate to society, he studied the social structure, societal norms, laws, community, groups, and societal roles of French society.

In his research, Durkheim looked for the causes and functions of social phenomena. Durkheim may be most famous for his observations about suicide among certain social groups. Durkheim's research on suicide rates illustrates his interest in the power of social cohesion as well as his commitment to quantitative research methods. Durkheim, in his famous work Suicide (1897), shows that suicide is influenced more by social structure than by individual choice or agency. Structure refers the social facts that surround and mark people, including race, class, sex, gender, institutions, organizational hierarchies, roles, and geographical location. Agency refers to a person's capacity to decide and act within the constraints of social facts or to challenge constraints (Turner, 1990).

Like Enlightenment philosophers and Durkheim before him, German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858–1918) was also concerned with social structure and sociability. Simmel researched and wrote extensively about the nature of association, culture, social structure, the city, and the economy. Simmel's work on the metropolis was particularly relevant during the nineteenth century as landscapes changed from agricultural to urban. During the nineteenth century, the metropolis or city became a location characterized by a division of labor and individuality or individual freedom. Simmel's ability to understand and analyze individual action within the context of social structures made his work relevant and interesting throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Nooteboom, 2006).

Contemporary sociologists of the late twentieth century broke with the Enlightenment's focus on structure to develop theories that blend structure and agency. For example, sociologist Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration acknowledges the influence of both structure and agency (Jackson, 2006). Anthony Giddens, born in 1938, is best known for his theory of structuration, which looks for meaning in social practices ordered across space and time rather than in the actions of individual actors. Structuration mediates the micro/macro and structure/agent dichotomies that characterize much of contemporary social theory. Giddens was critical of classical functionalism and structuralism for overlooking the role of actors in society. Giddens predicted that a new synthesis would occur in sociology to replace the competing sociological theories of the past century (Camic & Gross, 1998).

Ultimately, sociology has very deep roots in the European Enlightenment. Enlightenment thought is alive today in sociology's applied efforts to improve human rights, the scientific nature of sociological inquiry, and sociology's continued focus on the influence of social structure on human behavior.

Terms & Concepts

Categorical Imperative: Kant's moral philosophy that asserts that all people have one central imperative which dictates all duties and obligations.

Enlightenment: The eighteenth century philosophical movement in Europe that developed the belief that reason would lead to objective and universal truths about humanity.

Naturalism: A philosophy based on the notion that is the view that the scientific method is the only effective way to investigate reality.

Rationality: The idea that all beliefs and phenomena can be explained in accordance with logical principles.

Scientific Method: A formula for research, developed during the scientific revolution, intended to obtain reliable, reproducible data.

Scientific Revolution: A period of extreme growth in scientific knowledge during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Social Contract: The implicit or explicit agreement between government and society.

Society: A group of individuals united by values, norms, culture, or organizational affiliation.

Sociology: The scientific study of human societies and human social behavior with society.

Structure: The social facts that surround and mark people, including race, class, sex, gender, institutions, organizational hierarchies, roles, and geographical location.

Utilitarianism: An ethical philosophy which holds that the moral worth of an action ought to judged according to how it contributes to the happiness of the greatest number of people.

Bibliography

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Chatterjee, D. (2004). The moral foundations of politics. [Review of the book The Moral Foundations of Politics]. Ethics & International Affairs, 18 , 109-112. Retrieved April 28, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=12078572&site=ehost-live

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Hayes, P. (1993). Marx's analysis of the French class structure. Theory & Society, 22 , 99–123. Retrieved April 17, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=10755700&site=ehost-live.

Heiskala, R. (2011). From modernity through postmodernity to reflexive modernization. Did we learn anything?. International Review Of Sociology, 21 , 3–19. Retrieved October 23, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=59702983&site=ehost-live

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Mills, R., & Woods, J. (1996). Teaching about the influence of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment on early American history. Social Studies, 87 , 152–156. Retrieved April 17, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9609061965&site=ehost-live

Neocosomos, M. (2006). Can a human rights culture enable emancipation? Clearing some theoretical ground for the renewal of a critical sociology. South African Review of Sociology, 37 , 356–379. Retrieved April 17, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24993974&site=ehost-live

Newman, J. I. (2013). Arousing a [post-] Enlightenment active body praxis. Sociology of Sport Journal, 30 , 380–407. Retrieved October 23, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90669557&site=ehost-live

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Yuill, C. (2005). Marx: Capitalism, alienation, and health. Social Theory & Health, 3 , 126–143.

Suggested Reading

Ekelund, R., Street, D., & Davidson, A. (1996). Marriage, Divorce, and prostitution: Economic sociology in medieval England and Enlightenment Spain. European Journal of the History of Economic Thought, 3 , 183–200. Retrieved April 17, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6276616&site=ehost-live

Himmelfarb, G. (2001). The idea of compassion: The British vs. the French Enlightenment. Public Interest, 145, 3–25. Retrieved April 17, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=5161586&site=ehost-live

McLennan, G. (2011). Story of sociology: A first companion to social theory. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Academic.

Weigel, G. (2005). Enlightenments, modest and otherwise. Public Interest, 159, 153–158. Retrieved April 17, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=18229699&site=ehost-live