Field Research

Field research often falls under the purview of qualitative research. It is focused upon phenomena that occur in natural settings, or the field. Reviewed in this article are the conduct of and types of field research. In terms of types of field research, examples include ethnography, participant observation, and interviews. The conduct of field research involves the negotiation of entry into a setting where researchers engage within the field site for an extended period of time. Field notes often comprise the data gathered in field research and after a period of data analysis, results are written up and presented to constituents of a setting. Also discussed in the article are criticism of aspects of field research and issues relevant to the conduct of field research such as the relationship of the field researcher to the field site.

Keywords Case Studies; Entry; Ethnography; Field Notes; Field Research; Field Sites; Focus Groups; Interviews; Participant Observation; Qualitative Research

Overview

Across the fields of education, other areas of social science, such as psychology and anthropology, and in the natural sciences, it is research that is the means by which pertinent questions in myriad topics of interest are addressed. The two broad strategies for conducting research are through quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative research methods focus on data that can be quantified in numerical format and the statistical analysis of such data. Statistical analysis explores the relationship between variables as posited by hypotheses.

Qualitative research methods, on the other hand, center on data that is textual in format with hypotheses and theories that arise from the data gathered from naturalistic settings. Donmoyer (2006) referenced the mid-1980s as the date by which qualitative research was used more frequently within the field of education and gained a certain level of acceptance. Qualitative data can be gathered in a variety of ways including interviews, focus groups, and observations. Many of these data collection strategies comprise the area of qualitative research termed "field research." In fact, Atkinson and Shaffir (1998) denote field research as an aspect of ethnography and qualitative research in general.

Triandis (2000) succinctly defined field research as "a systematic investigation that is carried out in the field, as opposed to in a laboratory." (p. 430) According to Atkinson and Shaffir (1998) field research is "about studying phenomena in their natural setting." (p. 41) In that regard, field research is characterized by researchers' investment of themselves in the research that they conduct (Shaffir, Marshall, & Haas, 1979). Field researchers are guided by research questions that are grounded in hypotheses (Baxter, & Chua, 1998). Data is then gathered from several sources and is continually updated as new information is gained.

Conducting Field Research

One way of looking at the conduct of field research, or fieldwork as field research is also often referred, is through viewpoints described by Barley (1990) as synchronic, diachronic, and parallel. Barley defined synchronic analysis as cross-sectional in nature, diachronic analysis as longitudinal, and parallel analysis as a comparative strategy where data from synchronic and diachronic analyses can be used to compare different settings. Another perspective on the conduct of field research comes from Burke (1996) who posited eleven steps that comprise a field research endeavor. The steps are components of four sequential segments termed project identification and approval, project planning, project management, and project closure.

The project identification and approval segment of field research incorporates the initial idea on what to research, negotiating entry into the field site, and pitching the research idea within the field site (Burke, 1996). The most critical issue for individuals conducting field research is gaining entry in the field in which they intend to study which will involve participating in an ongoing process of negotiating access with gatekeepers within field sites (Baxter, & Chua, 1998).

Project Planning & Management

During the project planning phase, field researchers highlight areas of concern that may extend the length of the research project, attend to human subjects' requirements, encourage participants in the research, and work to collect sound data (Burke, 1996). After entry is negotiated and access to the field is open, the pertinent aspects of field research involve review of documents and aspects of the field site, interviewing members of the community of interest, and observations that lead to in-depth and exhaustive field notes (Barley, 1990; Baxter, & Chua, 1998). Field notes are integral to successful ethnography, and in systematic observation the method used to record data will shape the description of the information gathered so that it is all-inclusive or selective in scope (Triandis, 2000). Barley (1990) contended that the groundwork for data analysis begins while the field researcher is still observing the phenomena of interest.

Burke (1996) asserted that when in the project management segment of field research, researchers attempt to control aspects of the field environment, make efforts to gain a sense of ownership of the project, and manage any conflicts of interest that arise. Each of these tasks requires the commitment of the field researcher to honestly assess where they are in their work and continue to negotiate relationships with others in the field. Once the field researcher completes data collection the data analysis process begins in earnest.

Data Analysis

Barley (1990) described the data analysis process as incorporating the creation of codes that represent groups in to which data can be sorted. Scripts arise from a review of the themes that are ascertained from the data. Analysis of themes can be conducted using synchronic and diachronic strategies. Grounded theory is another approach used by field researchers during data analysis. The idea behind grounded theory is building a theory about the phenomena of interest based on the data gathered; that is, theory is created from the "ground up" (Bruce, 2007). The completion of data analysis leads to the project closure segment of field research that entails presentation of results to the participants and other stakeholders in the communities or organization in which the research took place (Burke, 1996).

Van de Ven and Huber (1990) listed several areas that those conducting field research should attend to; among those mentioned were time, choosing research sites, and careful selection of a research audience and presentation. As the conducting of field research requires a level of attention to detail and process of which even more experienced field researchers must remain cognizant, Edmondson and McManus (2007) have several suggestions for novice field researchers. They advised inexperienced field researchers to develop a broad skill set, refer to case studies for examples of the principles that serve as the foundation for field research, obtain practical experience in conducting research, and possibly pursue further training in field research methods with which they have less familiarity.

Further Insights

Types of Field Research

Field research includes methods such as ethnography, case studies, event history analysis, tracking events over time, observation, and surveys and interviews (Triandis, 2000; van de Ven, & Huber, 1990). Preparing field notes is critical to data gathering and revision, as is the process of writing up the data (Baxter, & Chua, 1998). Many types of field research, for example, observations, interviews, and ethnography, can be conducted longitudinally (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). Additionally, Triandis (2000) stated that experiments that take place in natural environments, such as the field experiment, and methods that are inconspicuous also comprise field research.

The field experiment has been conceptualized as lying midway on a continuum with traditional, anthropological field research and laboratory experiments as the anchor points (Phillips & Glynn, 2000). A field experiment is an experiment set up to take place in a natural context; a complementary type of field experiment is the found experiment, according to Phillips and Glynn. The found experiment is an experiment that is ongoing in the natural environment.

As has been previously stated, field research incorporates observation of phenomena of interest, data analysis and presentation of results (Atkinson & Shaffir, 1998). Atkinson and Shaffir (1998) further elaborate on observation and note that it can be covert or overt with the researcher being a participant or nonparticipant. Covert observation is generally considered to be an unacceptable method to investigate others' behavior since consent is not obtained from them.

Participant Observation/Interviews

Participant observation, on the other hand, has been deemed an integral component of field research. Participatory action research occurs when a researcher is a member of the community being studied-a community that will be informed by the results of the research conducted (McNicoll, 1999). Examples of complementary methods to participant observation in field research are interviews, document analysis, and archival data (Atkinson & Shaffir, 1998).

In regard to interviewing as a component of field research, Knapik (2006) referred to interviews as opportunities for individuals to engage in "telling their stories (p. 2)" to researchers. An interview is an interaction between the researcher and an individual where a topic is explored through a series of questions posed by the interviewer to the interviewee. When using interviews as a research method it is important to attend to the relationships developed while interviewing, address transcription issues, allow enough time to get into the data, have multiple sources and conduct more than one interview if possible (Francis, 2004).

Focus Groups

Focus groups are another strand of field research (Francis, 2004). Focus groups can be likened to a group interview with a moderator who facilitates discussion between a small number of individuals. Focus groups build upon the premise of interviews in that they delve for individuals' perspectives on topics of interest. Focus groups differ from one-on-one interviews with their attention to how members of the focus group interact with one another and the intention that interaction between group members will facilitate discussion (Roach, 2007).

Case Studies

In a case study, a field researcher explores a topic in an in-depth manner by focusing on an individual (or individuals) or a community of interest. The case study is defined by a number of attributes including: a small sample size, attention to relevant aspects of the setting, its occurrence in a circumspect area for a set period of time, being guided by hypotheses, and incorporating various data collection strategies, such as interviews and observation (VanWynsberghe, & Khan, 2007).

Ethnography

Ethnography entails a researcher exploring a topic of interest in a natural setting or field site. The field researcher will implement research methods that are grounded in a conceptual framework within the setting that the researcher has situated him or herself (Suzuki, Ahluwalia, Mattis, & Quizon, 2005). In an ethnography, the field researcher applies several of the research methods previously described, such as interviews and participant observation, in order to explicate the multiple facets of the setting that relate to the area being researched. Ethnography often continues for an extended period of time with analysis and write-up of the data gathered, usually in the form of field notes, a sustained process in and of itself (Miller, Hengst, & Wang, 2003). Ethnography culminates with the presentation of the results to stakeholders within the research setting.

Viewpoints

Criticisms of field research include small samples and the limited generalizability of findings (Atkinson & Shaffir, 1998). Small sample sizes with populations not chosen at random limits generalizability beyond the study sample and may impact the consistency with which similar results might be seen in other studies (Dudwick, Kuehnast, Jones, & Woolcock, 2006). Aside from the size of the samples, the manner in which samples are obtained is also methodological concern with field research. Attempting to gather a representative sample when conducting field research would aid in any generalizations about the findings the field researcher would like to make (Triandis, 2000).

Baxter and Chua (1998) described other areas of concern when conducting field research as the time it takes to gain entry, the possibility of encountering resistance within research settings, not being sure about the manner in which the field research is unfolding and the nature of the data, and how leaving the research setting will proceed. Issues can also arise during field research when an investigator is an observer or contact person for informants. In the case of the former, concerns include changing the system by observation and making sure that observations are accurately interpreted. In the latter case, the quality of informants and being able to foster open and clear communication are areas of concern (van de Ven, & Huber, 1990).

A tension in the conducting of field research is the pull between investment within a setting while keeping an appropriate distance in order to analyze what is occurring in a setting (Baxter, & Chua, 1998). Arguably, in terms of the field researcher and field site a bi-directional influence exists such that at some level the researcher impacts the environment under study while the field site impacts the researcher as well (Barley, 1990). It is critical then that the field researcher be clear about the vantage point with which they stand during their research (Atkinson & Shaffir, 1998).

Due to the integration of community members in the process of field research, the community becomes an active agent in field research endeavors (Dudwick et. al, 2006). When field researchers are participant-observers, issues may arise related to the influence of the participant-observer on the dynamics of interest as well as the loss of objectivity that may occur (Atkinson & Shaffir, 1998).

Technology has added even more complexity to field research; for example, video recording has added another dimension to participant observation (Paterson, Bottorff, & Hewat, 2003). New contexts have arisen for where field research can be carried out. For instance, Eichhorn (2001) described her work on "'zines," a new type of textual community with other examples of new textual communities include chat rooms on the Internet.

According to Atkinson and Shaffir (1998), along with reliability, field research must strive to achieve construct, internal, and external validity. Reliability refers to the consistency with which research yields similar results. Construct validity entails measurement of the appropriate concept. Internal validity involves striving for comprehensive data related to the phenomena being researched while external validity refers to the applicability of data gathered to populations of interest. Field research has been described as strong in the area of construct validity (Atkinson & Shaffir, 1998).

Baxter and Chua (1998) noted that ethical issues of field research entail deciding to conduct research that may be covert and the extent to which gatekeepers might influence the shape of field research. O'Neill (1990) also addressed ethics as it related to field research. Among the relevant issues are ecological validity or the ability to make generalizations about research findings beyond the setting in which the work was done.

Another point of interest with field research is the argument that field research extends beyond the province of qualitative research arena. For instance, in the management arena field research is defined as qualitative and quantitative data collection that takes places in organizational contexts (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). The breadth and depth of field research, such that it can be relevant to qualitative and quantitative arenas, as well as its central tenet of trying to understand people within their natural settings (O'Neill, 1990), represent just some of the strengths of field research.

Conclusion

Atkinson and Shaffir (1998) asserted that, "central to qualitative research, then, is experiencing reality as others experience it. The researcher must identify with the people studied in order to understand how they see things." (p.48) It is often through field research methods that qualitative researchers are able to gain insight into the reality of others and present these results to others so that the research knowledge base is expanded. Whether it is through participant observation or focus groups, field research methods enable researchers to discover more, not only about their specific topics of interest, but the world-at-large.

Terms & Concepts

Case Studies: Case studies are a type of field research where investigators focus on an individual (or individuals) or a community for in-depth study. Case studies are circumspect in scope in terms of object and field of study. They are characterized by small sample sizes and the use of various methods such as interviews and observation.

Entry: Entry refers to the period of fieldwork where field researchers negotiate access to the research setting of interest. Entry to the field site often results from discussions with key gatekeepers within the site.

Ethnography: Ethnography is a key method of field research. In ethnography, the field researcher selects both a topic of interest and field site and situates him or herself within the setting for an extended period of time. Other field research methods, such as participant observation and interviews, are implemented during ethnography in order to explicate varied aspects related to the topic of interest. Ethnography concludes after the data is analyzed, written up, and presented to stakeholders.

Field Notes: Field notes are the written record of what a field researcher has observed while in the field. Field notes may also be comprised of descriptions of the field site and transcripts of interviews or focus groups conducted.

Field Research: Field research is an integral component of qualitative research methodology. It is characterized by its occurrence in natural settings, or the field. Exemplars of types of field research include ethnography, participant observation, and interviews. Phases of field research have been posited as project identification and approval, project planning, project management, and project closure.

Field Sites: Field sites are the settings in which field research takes place. Field sites are often referred to as naturalistic settings.

Focus Groups: Focus groups are a method frequently used in field research and qualitative research in general. Focus groups are occasions in which several people are interviewed at the same time about a specific topic of interest. Moderators lead focus groups. The moderators present questions and facilitate discussion among the small number of focus group participants.

Interviews: Interviews are a type of field research where the researcher gathers information from another individual. Interview protocols consist of a series of questions focused on specific topics of interest that the field researcher wants to gain more information about from individual(s) within a field site.

Participant Observation: Participant observation has been referred to as a hallmark of field research. In participant observation, the field researcher is situated in a field site, or natural setting, and observes aspects of the setting and behavior of individuals within the setting. Interviews may also be an aspect of participant observation.

Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is one of two broad strategies for conducting research. It is focused on textual data as opposed to the numerical data at the heart of quantitative research. Qualitative research aims to elucidate concepts and relationships from data often gathered in natural settings, as in field research.

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VanWynsberghe, R., & Khan, S. (2007). Redefining Case Study. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 6 , 1-10. Retrieved December 22, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25730127&site=ehost-live

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Suggested Reading

Atkinson, P., & Delamont, S. (2006). In the roiling smoke: qualitative inquiry and contested fields. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education (QSE), 19 , 747-755. Retrieved December 9, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=22931440&site=ehost-live

Datta, Lois-ellin (1990). Case study evaluations. Washington, DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, Transfer paper 10.1.9. Retrieved December 23, 2007 from http://www.gao.gov/special.pubs/10_1_9.pdf

Robson, C. (2002) Real World Research: A resource for social scientists and practitioner- researchers (Second Edition). Oxford: Blackwell.

Essay by Edith Arrington, Ph.D.

Dr. Arrington is a licensed psychologist, consultant, and freelance writer. She has been a postdoctoral research fellow and taught Adolescent Development. She has also worked with students in public and independent schools and in the area of faculty recruitment in independent schools. Her general research, consulting, and writing interests are the relationship between race, development, and well-being for diverse youth and adults and understanding schools and media as critical contexts for socialization.