Freud's Structural Model of the Psyche

The foci of this paper circulate around the tertiary components that constitute the mental apparatus of Freud's structural model of the psyche: the id, superego, and ego, and their corresponding extensions (e.g., ego ideal and defense mechanisms). Freud asserted that the combined interaction of such forces epitomized human cognitions and driving forces that establish psychological welfare, manipulate behavior, and induce subsequent relational transactions. Before launching into an overview of Freud's structural model of the psyche, a distinction between conscious and unconscious realms of existence, one of his most significant contributions, will be examined.

Keywords Conscious; Defense Mechanisms; Ego; Ego Ideal; Id; Superego; Unconscious

Freud's Structural Model of the Psyche

Overview

Even in the early twenty-first century, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) maintains his status as one of the most influential, significant, and highly revered psychologists and theorists from whom the world has benefitted. Freud innovated and expanded upon many provocative, intellectual, and resourceful ideologies, which persistently contribute to those in the field of psychology and the lay public alike, based upon the stimulating and controversial elements that imbue their existence. Scholars, clinicians, and students oftentimes respond to the tenets of Freudian (i.e., psychoanalytic or psychodynamic) theory with impassioned divisiveness. Rarely do we ponder the thoughtful elements that Freud proposed with indifference or apathy; on the contrary, people tend to have heated opinions on his theories that are either tremendously enthusiastic or abhorrent. During his life, Freud generated a similar level of controversy, demonstrated in part by the raucous collegial relationships formulated and terminated with renowned psychologists such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler (Donn, 1988; Roazen, 1976).

Although the emphasis of this article surrounds Freudian forces that relate to the id, superego, and ego (Hollitscher, 1947; Hughes, 1994; Lear, 2005; Mayer, 2001; Neu, 1991; Schweidson, 2005; Strupp, 1967), as well as the interchange they have with conscious and unconscious dynamics (Gammelgaard, 2003; McLoughlin, 1999; Rosenbaum, 2003; Symington, 2006), it is noteworthy to mention additional contributions that he formulated. Some of the most impressive theoretical constructs set forth by Freud include:

• The Oedipal/Electra complex, which transpires during the psychosexual stages of development (Garcia, 1995; Zucker & Green, 1992),

• Elaboration on neuroses such as anxiety and guilt (Bristol, 2004),

• Emphasis on dreams and dream interpretation (Bouchet, 1995; Rodriguez, 2001), and

• The conception of clinical terms such as transference and countertransference (Arnd-Caddigan, 2006; Meszaros, 2004).

Conscious vs. Unconscious

A common visual depiction of the unconscious and conscious relationship is that of an iceberg: the tip of the iceberg signifies our conscious thinking, that which is exposed "above the surface" and to which we have regular and easy access. People are conscious, for example, of the daily expectations demanded upon them, such as where their place of employment is located, and the contact information of the friends and family with whom they intermingle on a daily basis.

The unconscious or "hidden" portion of the iceberg is an amalgamation of memories, events, fears, etc. that tend to remain buried throughout a person's life (Ekstrom, 2004; Jones, 2002; Wildt, 2007). For various reasons, people conceal troubling information as a protective barrier that preserves their sense of self. However, the unconscious as a separate entity has a strong sense of fortitude and expansive memory base, and while it may not communicate directly with a person consciously, it manifests urges, motivations, and predilections through behavior. Freud believed that by employing specific clinical techniques such as free association (Hoffer, 2006) that correspond with psychoanalysis, psychologically motivated people may acquaint themselves with their unconscious domains. For most people, however, unconscious thoughts surreptitiously emerge through one of three occurrences:

• Neurotic behavior,

• Parapraxes, and

• The act of dreaming (Kahn, 2002).

Neurotic Behavior

Neurotic behavior such as anxiety (Bierman, 2007; Bound, 2004) revolves around the fears that people possess, of which the origins are often either mysterious or irrational. For example, Joe might have an unusual fear of riding as passenger in a car but is unable to articulate why that is the case. Perhaps as a young child Joe was privy to unhealthy parental figures, in which his father was domineering and oppressive and his mother was submissively compliant to her husband's demands. Joe's mother was a passive "passenger" in the relationship steered solely by his father's imperious ways, a situation that Joe seeks to avoid at all cost, both literally and metaphorically. As demonstrated though this example, the relationship between the activating event and corresponding behavior may be cryptic and unrealistic.

Parapraxes

An example of a parapraxis, commonly referred to as the "Freudian slip," (Bate, 2002; Swer, 2004) might occur when a sexually frustrated individual is randomly asked the time and relays "sex o'clock" instead of "six o'clock." Though the person might shamefully blush and repair his or her "mistake," Freud considered the initial blunder as a manifestation of the unconscious desire to have a heartier sex life.

Dreams

Freud alleged that dreams were the "royal road to the unconscious" (quoted in Liegner, 2003) and emphasized the necessity of dream interpretation as the cornerstone of therapeutic alliances. Regardless of whether the lay person proactively pursues to interpret his or her dreams, Freud considered the dreams that naturally constitute our nocturnal existence as symbolic messengers that extend from our unconscious. To expand upon the previous example that exemplified the sexually frustrated individual, he or she might be bombarded with dream imagery that illustrates a lack of sexual expression. Freud believed that elongated dream symbols such as snakes and swords represent male genitalia and that crevices and/or containers (e.g., refrigerators, boxes) represent female genitalia.

Further Insights: Id, Ego & Superego

The Id

The developmental life stage that most closely resembles the nature of the id is infancy. The sole motivation that infants seek to fulfill is satisfying their own essential needs; upon soiling their diapers, or when experiencing discomfort, infants set off their alarm bells (i.e., cry) to alert their primary caregivers that a sense of solace and comfort is required. The infant beckons adults to satiate their needs regardless of what activities those adults were in the midst of. Additionally, the id is an inborn phenomenon that is initiated at birth and remains throughout a person's life (Klein, 2006).

The id parallels the infant by possessing similar temperamental underpinnings and expectations (Levin, 1992). Metaphorically speaking, when people are placed in unpleasant or compromising positions, the id is the component of the personality that stamps its foot in explosive retaliation and demands that matters are executed to suit its own needs. In an undesirable situation, such as an employee whose request for a raise was denied, most functionally mature adults would squelch the desire to respond with unbridled fervor. A normative response that the dejected employee would exhibit might range from gritting his teeth under the guise of a disingenuous smile, to assertively confronting the supervisor's decision-making process; in either case, it is likely that the id, as a quick-tempered, egocentric, indulgent, and infantile entity, has been censored.

The Pleasure Principle

The id operates on the "pleasure principle," (Solms, 2006) and therefore seeks immediate gratification at any given point in time. It is devoid of a proper sense of sophistication and is dismissive of other people's perspectives. The id discounts time-related sequential patterns such as the concept of "past, present and future," and only operates in the here-and-now (Solms, 2004). During the course of a hypothetical dinner party, the id represents the unruly dinner guest who arrives late, demands to be fed immediately, and, during the course of the meal, demonstrates poor etiquette by propping his/her elbows on the table while devouring his/her meal with unrestrained gusto. The id is an entirely unconscious process (Plaut, 2005), which makes it difficult for people to tap into its etiological driving forces or harness and modify its unpredictable mannerisms.

The id is a repository for primordial urges, guttural instincts, and emotional desires including those of an aggressive and sexual nature (Collins, 2006). During the course of a heated dispute, people often become frustrated at those with whom they are arguing. Though several factors contribute toward the way in which resolution is established, the id enters into the equation as the volatile element that might wish to take the punishment to the most extreme form of retaliation. The id disregards moral and legal repercussions and discards the notions of caution and consequence (Tekpetey, 2006). Likewise, the chemical and inexplicable laws of sexual attraction cohabit within the jurisdiction of the id. People are sometimes puzzled at those to whom they are romantically drawn, which can be explained through the erratic disposition of the id. The id does not recognize logical and identity-oriented constructs that help people navigate through relational matters such as "commitment" or "sexual orientation." For example, Jane Doe, a happily married heterosexual woman, might find herself romantically drawn to another woman, as an instinctual expression of id forces.

The Superego

The superego, on the other hand, is in diametrical opposition to the id. Whereas the id represents untamed impulses and reckless self-serving pursuits, images that illustrate the superego can be likened to that of the police, guardian, watchdog, judge, and supervisor (Alper, Levin, & Klein, 1964; Milrod, 2002; Velleman, 1999; Wurmser, 2004). The superego embodies the moral fiber of human existence by admonishing that which is ethically reprehensible and gravitates into a person's life principles that are upstanding and conscientious. If an uninhibited, inebriated bar patron served to exemplify the id, the bouncer responsible for monitoring the safety and well-being of that bar's clientele would represent the superego.

As infants move into childhood, they start becoming mindful of the subtle and direct cues transmitted from the outside world that help refine their sense of value development. Cognitively, they are able to discern the correlation between engagement in "naughty" behavior and the resulting reprimands that ensue. The constant influx of signals the child receives that molds his or her sense of "right and wrong" becomes established, and the birth of the superego is ignited. This internal process is reinforced as the child endures a series of punitive consequences (e.g., "time-out," verbal castigation, or corporal punishment) by parents, and during which he or she becomes exposed to outside educational, recreational, and social norms that require him or her to adhere to the rules and regulations established by teachers, coaches, and other authority figures (Hotchkiss, 2005).

Good, Bad, Right, Wrong

Over time, the external penalties that are imposed upon people by outside forces are initiated by the individuals, as they internalize the constructs of "good and bad." Whereas a five-year-old child is discouraged from engaging in bad behavior upon receiving a scolding from parental figures, adults dispense punishment upon themselves. A lingering amount of outside forces continue to interplay with the adult's sense of "right and wrong," such as the driver who is wary of surpassing the speed limit in fear of receiving a traffic violation. Simultaneously, the existence of one's inner police department tends to be just as forceful, damning, and serves as a deterrent by allotting severe punishment toward oneself. Ideally, the criteria on which the superego executes a verdict for maladaptive behavior should be fitting, without being excessively disproportionate. In other words, the "punishment" should match the "crime." Unfortunately, people often struggle in dispensing equitable penalties and tend toward being either remiss or relentlessly brutal. The latter tends to manifest through undue expressions of guilt and remorse over trivial matters.

Consequences & Unconscious Guilt

A portion of the superego is conscious, and materializes through the decisions people make (e.g., "I choose not to drive intoxicated for fear of inflicting harm upon an innocent party") as well as the consequences people inflict upon themselves in the throes of careless behavior (e.g., guilt, intentional self-destruction, lowered levels of self-worth). Additionally, a portion of the superego often remains beneath the deep recesses of the psyche and expresses itself behaviorally in the form of unconscious guilt. Unconscious guilt (Smith, 1999) may reveal itself in a variety of forms, such as can be seen in a person who inherently undermines his or her sense of self-worth, and therefore thwarts all attempts at evolving into a more fulfilled person. These underlying motivations may be concealed from the person's conscious realm of thinking, although the behavior often indicates his or her true nature. For example, Bob might consciously strive for professional success and initiate the steps toward accomplishing this feat, such as scheduling job interviews that appear to match his qualifications. However, he continuously finds himself in precarious dilemmas en route to such consultations, such as becoming ill or having automobile mishaps. According to the premise of Freudian thought, these dilemmas are forces that he is gravitating into his life as a means of self-sabotage.

Undoubtedly, there are both macro- and micro-oriented factors that contribute toward discerning that which is "right" and "wrong." Cultural and family norms influence major decisions that individuals grapple with in terms of establishing virtue and integrity (Howarth, 1980; Wells, 2003). For example, a couple with a newborn child might deliberate between having a dual-income household or having a stay-at-home parent serve as the primary caretaker, which in part might reflect the dictates of their families-of-origin. Likewise, families and/or cultures that either revere or reproach the notion of corporal punishment can influence how individual determinations on such matters are distinguished.

The Ego Ideal

An offshoot of the superego, termed the "ego ideal," (Grotstein, 2004; Moncayo, 2006; Ragland, 2000) is the ultimate, archetypical person we strive to become based on idyllic characteristics that we envision that, through the process of refinement, we can evolve into. Ego ideals tend to minimize our weaknesses while augmenting our assets, a feat that most people hope to enact through the process of actualization. The ego ideal of a budding thespian might be that of a successful Broadway actor, whereas a person with innate leadership abilities might fantasize about channeling those skills into the position of a renowned politician. The ego ideal is a subcategory of the superego because as the superego honorably shapes our behavior, the ego ideal honorably shapes our potential as human beings.

The Ego

The conscious part of the ego functions to moderate the oppositional forces of the id and the superego, as well as environmental and societal forces. In this regard, the ego is rational, dependable, linear, and honors time as an objective measurement. It intellectually analyzes the motivations and ramifications of both the id and the superego. The ego serves as "mother hen" to protect perilous or undesirable id behavior from entering into adverse territory; likewise, it tempers the powerful forces of the superego from spiraling into dogmatic, rigid omniscience.

Jane, a college student studying for a midterm exam, might be tempted to deviate from her studies and attend a party. The two polarities with which the ego contends are the id, which eagerly encourages Jane to abandon her schoolwork and indulge her extemporaneous needs, and her superego, which scornfully rejects such a notion and primly counters that Jane should commit herself to her scholarly obligations. The ego has the arduous duty of reconciling such polar extremes by analyzing the implications of each option and coming to a satisfactory consensus that will satiate the entertainment needs set forth by the pleasure principle, while eliminating possible pangs of guilt that might correspond with decadent behavior. Jane's ego might strike a balance by studying for several hours and rewarding such diligence by a brief appearance at the party. Another possibility that Jane might consider would be devoting the evening toward her academics and compensate such exertion with a fun-filled weekend venture.

Delayed Gratification

Another aspect of the ego is the veneration it extends toward delayed gratification (Krueger, et al., 1996). Whereas the id is impatient and seeks to be pleased now, the ego appreciates that pleasure is often accompanied at the offset of laborious efforts, or upon "paying one's dues." Also, at the prospect between possessing something desirable today, as opposed to waiting until tomorrow when the desirable good appreciates in value, the id will select the former and the ego will opt for the latter. For example, suppose Mary has the choice of either cashing out her retirement benefits now and accessing $15,000 for a frivolous expenditure, or waiting ten years when she can retrieve the full $50,000 amount. The rational and patient nature of the ego will choose the second option.

The art of successfully arbitrating between the id and the superego is quite taxing, and Freud asserted that the condition of the ego represents an individual's overall mental health status. In other words, it is not necessarily imperative that the id is particularly unruly or that the superego is acutely critical, but how successful the ego is at mitigating between such radical disparity.

Defense Mechanisms

Because the ego is a determinant for a person's psychological well-being, people naturally go to great length to protect, shield, and preserve its integrity. When the stability of a person's ego is at stake, the utilization of defense mechanisms serves to rehabilitate any potential damage that might be incurred and revert the ego back into a state of normalcy. The implementation of such defense mechanisms is an unconscious function of the ego, and the following is a select sample of such defense mechanisms (Baumeister, Dale, & Sommer, 1998; Cramer, 2001; Hutterer & Liss, 2006; Scano, 2007):

Displacement: Redirecting emotion from its origins to that of an impartial source. For example, a man who has an oppressive supervisor at work might release his pent-up frustrations onto his spouse, child, or family pet.

Projection: In the process of stifling unfavorable personality tendencies that a person might possess, that person might identify others as having those traits, even if such claims are blatantly inaccurate. For example, if a person denies his own homosexual tendencies, he might erroneously accuse others of being homosexual.

Reaction Formation: In an attempt to disown adverse personality traits, beliefs, or tendencies, a person might identify with, or take on the persona of an opposing stance. For example, a married man finds himself sexually aroused by his work colleague, and in order to distance himself from this predilection, he treats her quite cruelly.

Regression: When life becomes demanding, individuals might find themselves reverting back to a time frame when life was either happier or less complicated, even if such a time frame was during a significantly earlier developmental stage. For example, when overwhelmed with life stressors, a woman sucks her thumb and becomes whiny.

Repression: Extracting painful memories from the conscious realm of thinking so that there is no recollection of such painful events. For example, a woman who was the victim of child abuse has no conscious ability to recall that such an incident ever occurred.

Sublimation: Transferring unacceptable urges into activities that are deemed acceptable. For example, a man with violent tendencies becomes a professional athlete and channels his aggression toward his sport.

Conclusion

Freud's interplay between the id, superego, and ego is a fascinating account that helps explain the enigmatic nature of human behavior. Although his theories are dense, thorough, and intricate, they offer a pragmatic roadmap into unearthing the universal struggle toward self-enlightenment. There is a soulful and prosaic quality that corresponds with the tenets of Freud's philosophies. Concepts such as the unconscious, symbolism, dreams, and instinctual forces take on a sense of wistful contemplation, which can partially explain the allure of his psychological conjectures. Undoubtedly, when people become superficially acquainted with Freud's work, they can interject their own issues into the contextual framework of his ideals and conjure up examples that illustrate the interaction between their own "id," "superego," and "ego." Simultaneously, his theories impart the notion that there is a certain amount of depth attached to such psychological models, and a person who displays an interest in psychoanalysis can spend a lifetime acquainting him- or herself with the various psychodynamic elements that are illuminated in his work.

Terms & Concepts

Conscious: The "aware" part of one’s cognitions, with which one has regular and easy access.

Defense Mechanisms: The unconscious part of the ego that serves to rehabilitate any potential damage that might be incurred through situational dynamics and to revert the ego back into a state of normalcy.

Ego: The part of the psyche that functions to moderate the oppositional forces of the id and the superego, as well as environmental and societal influences.

Ego Ideal: An offshoot of the superego that represents the ultimate, archetypical person we strive to become.

Id: The inborn component of the psyche that is quick-tempered, egocentric, and indulgent.

Superego: The moral component of the psyche that serves to determine that which is "right" and "wrong."

Unconscious: The hidden portion of one’s cognitions that serves as a storehouse for repressed memories, events, and fears.

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Scano, G. P. (2007). Who defends itself from what? Toward a reformulation of the concept of defense. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 16 , 140–151. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=26945847&site=ehost-live

Schweidson, E. (2005). From the perverse pact to universal conflicts. International Forum of Psychoanalysis, 14, 21–27. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16968186&site=ehost-live

Smith, L. (1999). Individual and institutional defences against primitive anxieties: Counselling in prison. Psychodynamic Counselling, 5 , 429–443. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6674626&site=ehost-live

Solms, M. (2004). Freud Returns. Scientific American , 290 , 82–88. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12802752&site=ehost-live

Solms, M. (2006). Freud returns. Scientific American Mind, 17 , 28–35. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20691890&site=ehost-live

Strupp, H. H. (1967). An introduction to Freud and modern psychoanalysis. New York, NY: Barron's Educational Series, Inc.

Swer, G. M. (2004). Technics and (para)praxis: the Freudian dimensions of Lewis Mumford's theories of technology. History of the Human Sciences, 17 , 45–68. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15659090&site=ehost-live

Symington, P. (2006). The unconscious and conscious self. The nature of Psychical Unity in Freud and Lonegran. American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly: Journal of the American Catholic Philosophical Association, 80 , 563–580. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24015070&site=ehost-live

Tekpetey, K. (2006). Kweku Ananse: A psychoanalytical approach. Research in African Literatures, 37 , 74–82. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20332853&site=ehost-live

Velleman, J. D. (1999). A rational superego. Philosophical Review, 108 , 529–559. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3535050&site=ehost-live

Wells, M. C. (2003). The Freud/Weber connection: The case of Islamic Iran. Journal for the Psychoanalysis of Culture & Society, 8 , 214–231. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11640113&site=ehost-live

Wildt, A. (2007). Unconscious knowledge of one's own mind. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 14(5/6), 127–151. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25609903&site=ehost-live

Wurmser, L. (2004). Superego revisited—Relevant or irrelevant? Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 24 , 183–205. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13565674&site=ehost-live

Zucker, K. J., & Green, R. (1992). Psychosexual disorders in children and adolescents.

Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 33 , 107–151. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11373339&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Dickerson, L. (2007). Freudian concepts of id, ego, and superego applied to chemical and other addictions: Introducing twelve-step programs as the superego. New York, NY: iUniverse, Inc.

Emmerson, G. (2003). Ego state therapy. Carmathen: Crown House Publishing.

Tauber, A. I. (2012). Freud’s social theory: Modernist and postmodernist revisions. History of the Human Sciences, 25, 43–72. Retrieved March 22, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=82507027

Valliant, G. E. (1998). The wisdom of the ego. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.