Functionalist Perspective: Disengagement Theory

Structural functionalism is a theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of the social order and the relationship between the various structures in society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole. Using this perspective to theorize about the phenomenon of aging, many functionalists posit that society and the individual mutually sever many relationships during the aging process. According to Disengagement Theory, this process is good for individuals because it allows them to refocus on end-of-life considerations and preparation for death and is also good for society because it enables the smooth transition of social roles from one generation to the next. However, there are many criticisms of Disengagement Theory, and other theories need to be considered as well to fully account for and understand the social nature of the aging process.

Keywords Age Stratification; Ageism; Baby Boomer; Culture; Disengagement Theory; Functionalism; Gerontology; Postindustrial; Social Role; Society; Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Aging & Elderly Issues > The Functionalist Perspective: Disengagement Theory

Overview

Western society often has conflicting thoughts about aging. On the one hand, we are taught to respect our elders and told that wisdom comes with age. On the other hand, we have a youth-oriented culture that often emphasizes knowledge rather than wisdom and that considers anyone who does not know that latest jargon or own the latest technological gadget to be hopelessly behind the times. However, as increasing numbers of baby boomers reach retirement age and apply for Social Security and Medicare benefits, society is beginning to rethink its attitudes toward the aging process and the elderly. For example, in the 1960s a common expression among the youth was "never trust anyone over 30." Forty years later, these same people not only are over 30, but have children over 30.

As gerontologists know, there are real physiological, psychological, and sociological changes and problems associated with aging. However, in the 21st century, people are not only living longer than ever before, but are continuing to lead productive lives well past the age where once they would have been consigned to a rocking chair. For example, three women — all of whom are the same age and who qualify for the senior citizen discount at the local movie theater — represent three different attitudes toward aging. One woman quit her job (her second career) a few years ago, now spends most of her time babysitting her grandchild, and plans on moving in with her daughter and her daughter's family in the foreseeable future. In many ways, this is the classical approach to aging in which the elder relative reduces his/her social role and is taken care of by the younger members of the family. The second woman took early retirement from her job a few years ago and stays at home while her husband continues to work. After he retires, they plan on moving somewhere that is more conducive to senior living and focus on personal enrichment experiences. This represents a more modern approach to aging that focuses on age-related retirement goals and a concomitant major lifestyle change at a time partially determined by society. The third woman went back to school in her mid-forties and started a new career and business which she plans on maintaining for at least another decade or until health prohibits. This represents a more postmodern approach to aging in which one continues to live, work, and interact despite arbitrary dates on a calendar. Despite the fact that each of these individuals is taking a different approach to retirement and aging, they have one thing in common: They are each less engaged in social interactions and activities than they were when they were younger.

Further Insights

Disengagement Theory

The first two women have retired from work and careers and for the most part stay at home alone or with family. The third, even though she still works and plans to continue to do so, no longer goes into an outside office but works from home. All three women are less engaged with others and more happily involved with their own interests and pursuits than when they were younger. Structural functionalists see this tendency of many aging and elderly people who are still in good health to disengage from society by mutual agreement as an important aspect of growing older. The first woman was offered a retirement package from her job, which she accepted. As a result, her interactions and engagement with the outside world are less than when she was employed. The second woman was offered early retirement by her organization. She not only accepted but further retired from her previous level of interaction with the world by primarily staying at home. The third woman voluntarily decreased her level of engagement from society by changing to a career that did not require as much in-person social interaction as previously.

This phenomenon is explained by structural functionalists through disengagement theory. Structural functionalism is a theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of social order and the relationship between the various parts (structures) of society and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole. Disengagement theory is a structural functionalist theory of aging that posits that society and the individual mutually sever many relationships during the aging process. Disengagement theory was first introduced by Cumming and Henry in 1961 to explain the impact of aging over the course of one's life. It attempts to explain the observations associated with aging on both the macro level (i.e., society and the population at large) and on the micro level (i.e., individual, family, and group). Disengagement theory attempts to account for the declines that occur with age in an individual's physical, cognitive, and psychological functioning as well as in social interactions.

The theory is based on a study of elderly people in good health and relatively comfortable economic circumstances. According to disengagement theory, as they age, people voluntarily drop out of their earlier social roles (e.g., employee, volunteer, spouse) and allow younger people within the society to take on these positions. The reason for this, according to structural functionalists, is so that older people can prepare for death. Another tenet of disengagement theory is that as people age, they pass their social roles on to the next generation. A social role is a set of expectations placed on members of a group of people with a given social position or status within society. For example, all three women used in the example above gave up positions of power and status within their career fields to pursue other interests. The positions vacated in the organizations or careers left by these women have been since filled by other, younger individuals. Further, the first woman who now spends most of her time with her young granddaughter has also relinquished the position of career woman and mother to her daughter, and now has taken on the position of grandmother that has been abdicated by her own mother. According to disengagement theory, this practice of passing on social roles helps ensure the stability of the society.

Societal Disengagement

However, it is not only the elder who withdraws from society, but also the society that withdraws from the elder, voluntarily breaking ties or otherwise disengaging. In the examples of the three women above, society voluntarily offered to withdraw from the first two women in the case of their organizations offering them retirement packages. One of the implications of disengagement theory is that society should help older individuals pass on their social roles and disengage in order to help maintain the stability of society. For example, as people continue to age, society may offer various programs designed to meet the needs of older individuals, such as active living senior communities, retirement homes, or special education or social programs designed specifically for senior citizens. According to disengagement theory, retirement packages, pensions, and old-age economic support policies (e.g., Social Security, Medicare) reward older individuals for disengaging from society.

On the one hand, such programs are intended to meet the specific needs of the older individual. On the other hand, such programs segregate older individuals and help them to disengage from mainstream society and may take away status and responsibility. Social disengagement and senior programs may result in age stratification in which the older people are demoted within the social stratification because of their reduced status and income. Further, disengagement on the part of society can result in a situation of ageism in which the elderly are discriminated against not on the basis of the physical or mental capabilities but purely on the basis of their age. This is done in subtle ways by many organizations that prefer to hire younger applicants in part because of their lower salary requirements. Ageism is another way in which society disengages from the older individuals and segregates them away from mainstream society.

Those supporting disengagement theory believe that this phenomenon is good for both the individual and for society and that it should be encouraged. From the point of view of society and social stability, the disengagement of elders from society may be a good thing. Proponents of disengagement theory hold that disengagement helps society renew and stabilize itself by encouraging an orderly succession of replacement of older individuals with younger individuals, as the orderly replacement of older generations within society is important for societal stability. If older individuals stay too long in their jobs or other roles, they may die without younger individuals having learned how to take over the roles successfully. Further, the death of an older individual who is still active in a societal role (e.g., matriarch of a family, supervisor on the job) is posited to be more disruptive to society than a smooth and voluntary transition to the younger generation. In fact, disengagement theory posits that the timely and orderly withdrawal of older individuals form the workplace is important for the stability and optimal function of the labor market. Although this may make sense in theory, in actuality, however, many times when older people disengage from society, a great deal of information can be lost. For example, it has often been observed that when older individuals retire from technical jobs, the younger generation does not have the same depth of knowledge as the generation that it is replacing. As a result, problems may be solved less quickly or less efficiently and time, money, and effort need to be applied to helping the younger generation acquire the same depth of knowledge (at which point, they, too, will have approached the age at which society will require them to disengage).

Viewpoints

Is Disengagement Voluntary?

Although disengagement theory is wide enough in scope to account for both macro and micro level observations and is based on empirical observations, it is widely criticized. According to disengagement theory, the disengagement of older individuals from their former roles and from mainstream society is good not only for the stability of the society and the younger generations, but for the elders as well. However, not everyone agrees with this conclusion. Further, research does not fully support disengagement theory as a universal reflection of the real world and, in fact, some research directly contradicts the predictions of disengagement theory. In fact, of the sociological theories of aging that are discussed in the literature, disengagement theory is the one most open to criticisms of ageism. One of the criticisms of disengagement theory is that it is typically society, rather than the individual, that initiates or forces disengagement and that both parties do not participate equally in the decision or have equal power in making the decision. Because of this imbalance, many critics suggest that although disengagement may be good for society (although that assumption, too, is open to debate), but not so good for the individual.

Society forces aging individuals to give up their social roles. Although most individuals typically do this voluntarily many times within their lifetimes (e.g., the change from being a student to being an employee, from being a spouse to being a parent, from being in a lower socioeconomic status job to being in a higher one), disengagement in one's later years is often not a voluntary process. The set of an individual's social roles in many ways defines that person (e.g., successful professional, spouse, community leader). When an individual voluntarily disengages from one social role and takes on another one, it is typically a good thing based on the person's self-perception, interests, and needs. When that disengagement is forced upon the individual, however, it can lead to a loss of identity and a situation in which the person is forced into a role that he or she does not desire. This can have serious and detrimental psychological and social implications. Far from seeing retirement packages, pensions, and old-age economic support policies as rewards for older individuals for disengaging from society, critics see these things as systems of rewards and punishments used by organizations and social institutions as a way to force older people into different (and, perhaps, undesired or undesirable) roles. This is particularly detrimental in those situations in which the older individual is powerless to refuse the change.

There are a number of other reasons for questioning the appropriateness of disengagement theory. First, professionals who work with the elderly often see different patterns of behavior than those predicted by disengagement theory. For example, in opposition to the prediction of disengagement theory, it has been found that older individuals who remain socially active and continue in their social roles tend to be the most satisfied with their lives. Second, not every older adult disengages to the same extent. As illustrated by the example of the three women above, some older adults retire early while others continue to work and maintain their accustomed place in society well beyond the "normal" retirement age. Third, the image of the disengaged senior citizen is not universally held across cultures, or even within Western culture. For example, many older people continue to hold prestigious and powerful roles within society well into their senior years (e.g., the Pope, many members of corporate boards of directors, senior politicians). Fourth, although disengagement theory posits that older individuals disengage from social roles and mainstream society so that they can better prepare for death, in fact many older individuals who voluntarily disengage from one set of roles do so in order to more fully engage in other roles. For example, the first woman in the previous example left her corporate job so that she could focus on family and on being a grandmother. This decision, as is the case with many older individuals, was voluntary and indicated a shift in engagement focus rather than disengagement. Similarly, the third woman in the illustration above voluntarily disengaged from one career and set of roles to switch careers and engage more fully in that set of roles. Fifth, social disengagement by older individuals is not a universal phenomenon either globally or historically. For example, in the United States following the Second World War, culture became increasingly fixated on the potential for the youth of the country to lead it forward into success in a postindustrial era. In actuality, however, these attitudes — and the disengagement theory that arose from them — are less relevant today than they were before. Finally, the disengagement of older individuals from society is far from being a universal thing for society. In fact, older individuals still have a vital role in family affairs and child rearing, as community and political leaders, and as workers and consumers that aid in the health of the economy.

Conclusion

Disengagement theory is a structural functionalist theory of aging that posits that society and the individual mutually severs many relationships during the aging process. According to disengagement theory, this process is good for individuals because it allows them to refocus on end-of-life considerations and preparation for death. Disengagement theory also posits that this phenomenon is good for society because it enables the smooth transition of social roles from one generation to the next.

However, despite its scope and clarity, disengagement theory has many critics and does not account for all the data. In addition, given the fact that disengagement is typically forced upon the individual by society rather than being a mutually agreeable decision makes disengagement a less than desirable condition in many situations. Further, it is even debatable that disengagement is good for society as many older individuals continue to be productive members of society on both the micro and the macro level well into their later years. Although disengagement theory does account for some of the cultural phenomena of aging, it does not account for them all. Disengagement theory may have its place, but other theories need to be considered as well to fully account for and understand the social nature of the aging process.

Terms & Concepts

Age Stratification: The hierarchical ranking of groups by age within society. In age stratification, different social roles are ascribed to individuals during different periods in their lives. These roles are not necessarily based on their physical capabilities and constraints at different times in their lives.

Ageism: Discrimination based on age or discrimination against the elderly.

Baby Boomer: An individual who was born during an unusual period of greatly increased birth rate following World War II. Although there is no universally accepted span of years that make up the baby boom, it is usually is considered to encompass the years between 1946 and the early 1960s.

Culture: A complex system of meaning and behavior that is socially transmitted and that defines a common way of life for a group or society. Culture includes the totality of behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of human work and thought of the society or group.

Disengagement Theory: A functionalist theory of aging that posits that society and the individual mutually severs many relationships during the aging process.

Functionalism: Also referred to as structural functionalism. A theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of social order, the relationship between the various parts (structures) in society, and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole.

Gerontology: The scientific study of the physiological, psychological, and sociological aspects of old age, aging, and the problems of the elderly.

Postindustrial: The nature of a society whose economy is no longer dependent on the manufacture of goods (i.e., industrial), but is primarily based upon the processing and control of information and the provision of services.

Social Role: A set of expectations placed on members of a group of people with a given social position or status within society.

Social Stratification: A relatively fixed hierarchical organization of a society in which entire subgroups are ranked according to social class. These divisions are marked by differences in economic rewards and power within the society and different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social stratification is a system of structured social inequality.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.

Status: A socially established position within a society or other social structure that carries with it a recognized level of prestige.

Bibliography

Hochschild, A. R. (1975). Disengagement theory: A critique and proposal. American Sociological Review, 40 , 553–569. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=14907834&site=ehost-live

Kwok, J., & Tsang, K. (2012). Getting old with a good life: Research on the everyday life patterns of active older people. Ageing International, 37, 300–317. Retrieved October 28, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=78304259

Lips, H. M., & Hastings, S. L. (2012). Competing discourses for older women: agency/leadership vs. disengagement/retirement. Women & Therapy, 35(3/4), 145–164. Retrieved October 28, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=77441491

Mabry, J. B. & Bengtson, V. L. (2005). Disengagement theory. In E. B. Palmore, L. Branch, & D. K. Harris (eds.), Encyclopedia of Ageism. Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, 113–117. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=22546614&site=ehost-live

Mckee, M. J., Harrison, G., & Lee, K. (1999). Activity, friendships and wellbeing in residential settings for older people. Aging and Mental Health, 3 , 143–152. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=3954788&site=ehost-live

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Walker, J. J., Orpin, P. P., Baynes, H. H., Stratford, E. E., Boyer, K. K., Mahjouri, N. N., & Carty, J. J. (2013). Insights and principles for supporting social engagement in rural older people. Ageing & Society, 33, 938–963. Retrieved October 28, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89242747

Suggested Reading

Cumming, E. (1963). Further thoughts on the theory of disengagement. International Social Science Journal, 15 , 377–393. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=10974487&site=ehost-live

Damodaran, L., Olphert, W., & Phipps, S. (2013). Keeping silver surfers on the crest of a wave—older people's ICT learning and support needs. Working with Older People: Community Care Policy & Practice, 17, 32–36. Retrieved October 28, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=86655316

Hinterlong, J. E. & Williamson, A. (2006, Win). The effects of civic engagement of current and future cohorts of older adults. Generations, 30 , 10–17. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=25027659&site=ehost-live

McMordie, W. R. (1981). The phenomenon of withdrawal in relation to the aging process: A developmental perspective. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 9 , 71–79. Retrieved June 30, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=8650334&site=ehost-live

van Dyk, S., Lessenich, S., Denninger, T., & Richter, A. (2013). The many meanings of "active ageing." Recherches Sociologiques et Anthropologiques, 44, 97–115. Retrieved October 28, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90088491