GED Programs

General Educational Development (GED) programs are the most widely recognized form of secondary-level adult education in the United States and Canada. GED programs give high school dropouts of all ages the opportunity to earn a General Equivalency Degree by passing the GED certification exam. The GED exam is produced and administered by the nonprofit American Council on Education's (ACE) GED Testing Service in partnership with for-profit publisher Pearson. The collaboration with Pearson allowed the development of a computerized version of the test, and in 2013, an online Spanish language version was released. Because the paper version of the test was eliminated at the end of 2013, and a number of states declined to administer the more expensive online test, other testing companies entered the market (Adams, 2013). New York, for example, explored alternatives to the ACE's GED (Thomson, 2013).Though most states do not require test-takers to undergo any formal preparation, many local community colleges, secondary schools, and other community centers offer preparation courses. Books and practice tests can also help students study on their own. Those who pass the test can benefit from improved employment and postsecondary educational opportunities, as well as greater self-confidence. Critics of the test claim that its availability increases the high school dropout rate, and that a GED certificate is not as valuable as a high school diploma.

Keywords American Council on Education (ACE); GED Certificate; General Equivalency Degree (GED); General Educational Development (GED); High School Diploma; High School Dropout; Human Capital; Vocational Training/Education

Overview

General Educational Development (GED) programs are the most widely recognized form of secondary-level adult education in the United States and Canada. GED programs give individuals of all ages who did not graduate high school the opportunity to earn a General Equivalency Degree, or GED certificate, by demonstrating sufficient cognitive skills and mastery of key high school curriculum subject areas. GED program participants demonstrate these skills not through classroom attendance and participation, but by passing the GED exam. Those who pass the GED test are no longer counted as dropouts, but are considered high school graduates in state, local, and federal educational statistics (Smith, 2003).

The GED exam is produced and administered by the American Council on Education's (ACE) GED Testing Service and Pearson, an education publisher. The 2002 version of the exam was really a battery of five standardized tests made up of nearly 300 multiple choice questions and one essay, and taking slightly less than 8 hours to complete. The 2014 test has four sections: Reasoning Through Language Arts, Science, Social Studies, and Mathematical Reasoning and is aligned with Common Core Standards. Even though the tests are geared towards specific areas of study, each portion of the exam is designed to test for the same "set of basic cognitive skills" (Boesl, Alsalam, & Smith, 1998, p. ix). Test takers must be able to recall some factual knowledge, but it is far more important that they exercise fundamental critical thinking skills. In the math section, for example, test takers do not need to memorize mathematical formulas, but they do need to know how to use the formulas (provided in the exam) to solve math problems (Boesl et al., 1998).

Besides creating the GED exam, ACE also sets its minimum passing requirements. In the early years of the GED, exams were fairly easy to pass. In the years between 1954 and 1960, for example, between 76% and 80% of test-takers passed the exam each year (Boesl et al., 1998, p. 8). This is because, in order to pass the test, test-takers simply had to beat the chance factor, or choose more correct answers than could be accounted for by chance (Smith, 2003). ACE's standards have become more stringent over the years, and currently test-takers must score at more than double the chance factor in order to pass the GED exam. Additionally, state assemblies are free to legislate passing requirements that exceed those set by ACE, and many states choose to do so (Smith, 2003).

Approximately once every decade, ACE designs an entirely new GED test. These overhauls change not only the content but also the actual form of the test in order to reflect general changes in high school curriculum. In 1988, for example, the essay section was added to what had theretofore been an entirely multiple choice exam (Smith, 2003). Over the years, the trend in these overhauls has been away from the recall of factual knowledge and towards the testing of overall critical thinking abilities (Smith, 2003). The latest GED exam was introduced in 2014, amending not only the content but also the mean of taking the test. Paper tests were eliminated in 2013, with fully online tests being implemented in January 2014.

Preparing for & Taking the GED Exam

The GED exam is administered locally, and is usually given at local secondary schools, community colleges, or other educational community centers. Each state sets its own policies as to who is eligible to take the GED exam. Many states require test takers to be 18 years of age or older, but offer special exemptions for test-takers as young as 16 years of age. Some states require test-takers to pass a practice test before they sit for the GED; others do not. States also decide what type of credential is given to those who pass the test. Most states issue either an equivalency certificate or an adult education diploma (Miller, 2006).

In most states, no type of formal preparation is required in order to take the GED exam (Smith, 2003). However, test-takers utilize a variety of preparation methods. Test preparation courses and adult education courses are offered at many local community colleges, secondary schools, and other community educational centers (Pluviose, 2006). If test-takers cannot attend such a course, or prefer to study on their own, books and practice tests are available. Many cable and publicly supported TV stations also offer programming geared towards GED test preparation (Smith, 2003). Finally, a significant number of GED test takers prepare for the test while incarcerated. The Department of Correctional Services offers evening classes, Adult Basic Education (ABE) literacy programs in both Spanish and English, and additional instruction for inmates at all primary and secondary educational levels. Most prisons run both pre-GED programs for inmates whose cognitive and reading abilities are below the 9th but above the 5th grade level, and GED programs for inmates with abilities above a 9th grade level (Nuttal, Hollmen, & Staley, 2003).

The Origins of the GED Program

The General Educational Development program was conceived during World War II as an alternative way to enable returning veterans to resume high school educations that had been interrupted by military service (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). The Roosevelt administration intended the GED exam to prevent the return of veterans into the civilian population from causing an economic depression. If veterans could quickly and easily earn GED certificates, then they could seek higher education with the help of the GI Bill instead of flooding the job market. The administration also hoped that the existence of the GED certificate would quell public opposition to the drafting of teenagers (Smith, 2003).

At this early stage, the GED certification exam was available only to veterans. Colleges and universities looked upon a General Equivalency Diploma favorably, as they were pre-disposed to admit veterans whose education would be funded by the GI Bill (Smith, 2003). Even as ACE began exploring the use of the GED among non-veterans, making it available to civilians in 1947, most states continued to prohibit civilians from taking part in GED programs (Miller, 2006; Smith, 2003). By 1959, however, most GED test-takers were non-veterans; and by 1974 all 50 states awarded all GED test-passers, regardless of military or civilian status, high school equivalency diplomas (Smith, 2003). Currently, the majority of GED test-takers are both civilians and relatively recent high school dropouts.

Applications

What are the Benefits to Earning a GED?

The U.S. Department of Education, working in concert with the National Library for Education, has identified several beneficial effects of participating in a GED program and earning a GED certificate:

Stimulus to Human Capital Investment

Human capital theory holds that individuals who invest in themselves through education increase their productivity in the workforce as well as the range of professional opportunities available to them (Georges, 2001). The time and money that GED program participants spend in preparing for and taking the GED exam represent a significant human capital investment, and a GED certificate should accordingly result in higher work wages and increased job and educational opportunities. Most researchers have found that while earning a GED can result in higher wages, the certificate is most valuable as a means of opening further educational opportunities (Brown, 2000). Some experts believe that test-takers would benefit more from the exam if they were rewarded for higher scores, and thus had an incentive to invest more time and money in preparing for it (Boesl et al., 1998).

The GED as Sorting Procedure

GED programs offers high school dropouts the opportunity to differentiate themselves from other dropouts. By taking and passing the GED exam, dropouts demonstrate a level of motivation and cognitive ability not associated with the larger pool of high school dropouts (Boesel et al., 1998). This self-selective process demonstrates a level of personal motivation and commitment to employers and associates and may correspondingly lead to increases in wages and professional responsibilities.

The GED & Post-secondary Educational Opportunities

Research has shown that the GED certificate is perhaps most valuable not as stimulus to revenue growth, but as a stimulus to higher education (Brown, 2000). High school dropouts cannot enroll in college and university courses without a GED certificate. Two-thirds of GED program participants indicate that they are in fact taking the GED in order to become eligible for higher education programs (Smith, 2003). In addition, GED certificate holders tend to participate in vocational and other non-college or university-affiliated educational programs more often than other high school dropouts (Baycich, 2003). While GED certificate holders are more likely than other dropouts to earn a college degree, they are still less likely than high school graduates to earn one (Smith, 2003).

The GED as a Self-Confidence Booster

Many high school dropouts develop low self-esteem. Low self-esteem has been shown to contribute to negative behaviors such as poor work performance and even crime. Participating in a GED program can help break this cycle by boosting self-confidence and serving as the first step in improving the circumstances of a high school dropout's life. Anecdotal evidence strongly supports this conclusion (Boesel et al., 1998).

Viewpoints

Does the GED Raise the High School Dropout Rate?

Currently, nearly 50% of GED test-takers are age 19 or younger. In 2001, GED certificates constituted 19% of all high school credentials awarded by state departments of education (Smith, 2003). Many experts believe that these trends towards more and younger GED test-takers indicate a troubling conclusion: The GED may actually encourage students to drop out of high school (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). In many U.S. states and throughout Canada, dropouts must be aged 19 or older in order to take the GED exam. This rule is intended to prevent students from dropping out of high school in order to earn a GED sooner than they could earn a high school diploma. However, most states offer exemptions so that students as young as 16 years of age often take the exam (Miller, 2006). The fact that a steadily increasing percentage of GED test-takers are of high school age suggests that dropouts may leave high school with a predetermined intention of earning a GED. Some students choose to do this because they see a GED program as an easier path than high school (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). If a student is struggling in school and perceives a GED as having equal status with a traditional high school diploma, then it would make sense for that student to drop out of high school and sit for the GED exam. After all, passing the exam requires much less time and energy than does completing high school (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). In some states, such as Florida, high-stakes testing - whereby students must pass certain standardized exams in order to earn a diploma - exacerbates this situation. Students in these states who may have trouble passing state exams drop out of school in order to take and pass the less rigorous GED exam (Fratt, 2004).

In terms of human capital theory, the GED may thus offer a disincentive to invest in education (Boesel et al., 1998). Completing a GED program takes only a fraction of the classroom time associated with a traditional high school diploma (Smith, 2003; Georges, 2001). If students who would otherwise stay in school choose to dropout because of the availability of the GED, then the GED is encouraging students to invest less time and energy - less human capital - in their futures.

An Alternative to High School?

Some high school administrators take a different approach to this issue. They tout GED programs as a welcome alternative for problem students who cause disruptions among the general school population (Rachal & Bingham, 2004). Sylvia E. Robinson, the executive director of the General Educational Development Testing Service, shares this view. She wants to explicitly market the GED exam to high school students as an alternative path for students who are having a difficult time in school and contemplating dropping out (Pluviose, 2006). This strategy is viewed as an effective practice because GED certificate holders are counted as graduates in state and federal educational statistics. So long as dropouts earn GED certificates, schools can remove disruptive students without raising the overall high school dropout rate. In addition, schools do not have to fund their own night courses for problem students if they move these students directly into GED courses (Smith, 2003).

Critics charge that marketing the GED as an alternative to high school "amounts to administrative collusion in the dropout culture" (Rachal & Bingham, 2004, p. 38). Adult educators are especially frustrated by this approach because it contributes to the trend towards younger GED test-takers. GED programs have historically been the cornerstone of U.S. adult education, and when recent high school dropouts enroll in such programs, federal money earmarked for adult education is in effect subsidizing youth education (George & Schaefer, 2002; Rachal & Bingham, 2004).

Still others argue that the availability of the GED exam to young high school dropouts has not raised the dropout rate. While it is true that younger dropouts are taking the GED exam, they may not be dropping out of high school expressly to do so. Instead, they may be dropping out of school for different reasons and then taking the exam simply because it is available. The changing economy may contribute to this as well. With many manufacturing jobs moving overseas, dropouts have a more difficult time finding high-paying work and see earning a GED certificate as a way to raise their earning potential (Fratt, 2004).

Is the GED Really Equivalent to a High School Diploma?

Much recent research has focused on the value of a GED certificate in comparison to that of a high school diploma. The general consensus on this issue is that GED certificate holders fare better on the job market and in higher education than high school dropouts but fare worse in these areas than high school graduates (Smith, 2003; Miller, 2006; Georges, 2001; Boesel et al., 1998).

In terms of human capital theory, the GED represents a substantially smaller investment than a high school diploma. While high school students spend an estimated 410 hours every year studying core curriculum subjects, most GED test-takers spend less than 100 hours studying for the exam (Smith, 2003; Boesel et al., 1998). On average, high school graduates have spent 861 more hours completing core curriculum subject work than GED certificate holders (Smith, 2003). Most GED test-takers never make up for the number of hours they missed by dropping out of high school (Boesel et al., 1998). Even if GED test-takers spend a significant amount of time studying for the exam, they still experience less classroom time than high school graduates (Georges, 2001). Because GED certificate holders have invested less time and energy in their secondary school education, they tend to reap fewer rewards from it.

There is another important way in which a GED certificate is not comparable to a high school diploma. Unlike a diploma, a GED certificate does not indicate the internalization of institutional norms (Smith, 2003). In order to earn a high school diploma, students must adapt to and follow certain normative behaviors associated with school. They must respect teachers, come to class on time, complete homework, and follow myriad other rules. In contrast, GED certificate holders do not need to surmount any of these "institutional barriers" - they only need to pass an exam (Smith, 2003, p. 376). Many GED test-takers dropped out of high school not because they lacked the cognitive skills needed to complete their coursework, but because they were unable to assume acceptable attitudes and behaviors at school (Brown, 2000). Evidence shows that prospective employers are aware of this situation and value a GED less than a high school diploma precisely because it signals unsuitability to a structured workplace environment (Smith, 2003). This perceived lack of a strong work ethic makes some GED certificate holders less employable than high school graduates (Brown, 2000).

The United States Armed Services has come to exactly this conclusion. Due to higher attrition rates associated with GED certificate holders, the military does not view a GED as equivalent to a high school diploma (George & Schaefer, 2002). Military researchers have found that GED certificate holders have attrition rates double those of high school graduates and comparable with those of high school dropouts (Boesel et al., 1998). Accordingly, in its three tier system, the military rates GED certificate holders as more desirable recruits than high school dropouts but less desirable recruits than high school graduates. The military has also decided that no more than 10% of new recruits each year can have a GED certificate rather than a high school diploma (George & Schaefer, 2002).

The GED also appears to be less valuable than a high school diploma in the realm of higher education. There is evidence that GED certificate holders who pursue higher education earn lower grades and have lower graduation rates than do high school graduates (Boesel et al., 1998). The rate at which GED certificate holders complete postsecondary educational programs is low for all but vocational programs (Smith, 2003).

Spanish Language GED

Some recent immigrants and Spanish-speaking youth choose to take the GED because their English skills are too poor to make finishing high school and earning a diploma feasible (Zehr, 2006). One study has shown that 44% of Hispanic high school students were expected to drop out of school in 2006 alone (Pluviose, 2006). The Spanish language version of the test was released in 2013; however, it was available only in conjunction with the computerized test. This meant that the Spanish test was only available in states that offered the online GED (Adams, 2013). Some of these students may choose to take the GED exam in Spanish. Many GED test-takers who choose to take the exam are undocumented immigrants who hope to use the skills they gain through GED programs and continuing education in order to build a case for legal residence (Zehr, 2006). Some lawmakers have raised controversy over this issue, arguing that federal funds should not finance education that takes place in the Spanish language. Instead, critics argue, this money should be used to help improve Spanish-speakers' English skills so that they can pass the exam in the English language (Zehr, 2006).

Terms & Concepts

American Council on Education (ACE): The major coordinating body for all institutions of higher education in the United States. Creates and administers the GED exam through its GED Testing Service.

GED Certificate: Earned by passing the GED exam, the exact nature of the certificate varies from state to state. In some states it is referred to as an Adult Education Diploma, in others it is called an Equivalency Certificate.

General Educational Development (GED): One of the meanings denoted by GED; used to refer to the entire GED program as well as to the GED exam.

General Equivalency Degree (GED): One of the meanings denoted by GED; refers to the certificate earned by those who pass the GED exam.

High School Diploma: Credential given to students who complete all of the curricular and extracurricular requirements mandated by state and local educational agencies.

High School Dropout: A student who leaves high school before completing the requirements for a diploma.

Human Capital: The knowledge and skills that allow a person to engage in productive labor in return for payment.

Vocational Training/Education: Non-academic education that prepares students for careers that require manual or technical skills.

Bibliography

Adams, C. (2013). High school equivalency test gets a makeover. Education Week, 32, 8-9. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88000710&site=ehost-live

Baycich, D. (2003). GED grads in college: Building awareness. Adult Learning, 14 , 5-7. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21924109&site=ehost-live

Boesel, D., Alsalam, N., & Smith, T. (1998). Research synthesis: Educational and labor market performance of GED recipients. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from U.S. Department of Education http://www.ed.gov/pubs/GED/index.html

Brown, B. (2000). Is the GED a valuable credential? Myths and Realities no. 10. Washington, DC: Office of Education Research and Improvement. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED448291). Retrieved March 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/16/ba/11.pdf

Fratt, L. (2004). GED rates rise. District Administration, 40 , 10. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=14010996&site=ehost-live

George, C. & Schaefer, L. (2002). General academic achievement of adult high school dropouts. Retrieved March 31, 2007, from American Council on Education http://www.acenet.edu/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&section=Research2&template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentFileID=2308

Georges, A. (2001). The GED certificate and the poverty status of adult women. Journal of Children & Poverty, 7 , 49-61. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4273117&site=ehost-live

Miller, P. (2006, June 22). GED battery no substitute for diploma. Education Week, 25, 8-9. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21669998&site=ehost-live

Nuttal, J, Hollmen, L., & Staley, M. (2003). The effect of earning a GED on recidivism rates. Journal of Correctional Education, 54 , 90-95. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=10824093&site=ehost-live

Pluviose, D. (2006). New GED chief faces sagging testing rates despite high minority dropout numbers. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 23 , 6-7. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21764603&site=ehost-live

Rachal, J. & Bingham, M. (2004). The adolescentizing of the GED. Adult Basic Education, 14 , 32-44. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=13020493&site=ehost-live

Rose, M. (2013). Second chances: The value of adult education and the GED. Phi Delta Kappan, 94, 45-49. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=86025483&site=ehost-live

Smith, T. (2003). Who values the GED? An examination of the paradox underlying the demand for the general educational development credential. Teachers College Record, 105 , 375-415. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9353378&site=ehost-live

Thompson, C. (2013). NY considering alternatives to new GED exam for adults. Community College Week, 25, 5. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=86458693&site=ehost-live

Tuck, E. (2012). Repatriating the GED: Urban youth and the alternative to a high school diploma. High School Journal, 95, 4-18. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87048865&site=ehost-live

Zehr, M. (2006, June 7). For some students, GED test in Spanish is best alternative. Education Week, 25 , 1-23. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21178353&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Cao, J., Stromsdorfer, E., & Weeks, G. (1996). The human capital effect of the GED on low income women. Journal of Human Resources, 31 , 206-228. Retrieved April 3, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9603150513&site=ehost-live

King, C. (2002). Barriers affecting GED participation among recent high school dropouts. Adult Basic Education, 12 , 145-156. Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=10760555&site=ehost-live

Kist, W. (2003). Non-academic challenges faced by GED scholars: A report of the GED scholars initiative. Adult Learning, 14 , 11-13. Retrieved April 3, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21924111&site=ehost-live

Sessons, D. & Taylor, R. (1997). Predicting student success in a community GED program. College Student Journal, 31 , 423-428. Retrieved April 3, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

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