Growing Old: Social Aging

There are a number of prominent theories of social aging, each of which examines the phenomenon from a different perspective. However, although all are based on observations of the real world situation of older adults, none of them comprehensively account for all the social aspects of aging or for the wide range of individual differences in the ways that older individuals interact with society. More research is required not only to better understand social aging, but also to better understand the interaction between the physical, psychological, and social aspects of aging. In addition, as older adults increasingly lead longer, healthier lives, it is important to also reexamine older definitions of aging and to rethink social policy and attitudes in order to avoid marginalizing this growing segment of the population.

Keywords Activity Theory; Ageism; Age Stratification; Cognitive Ability; Conflict Perspective; Disengagement Theory; Functionalism; Industrialization; Modernization Theory; Quality of Life; Social Role; Society; Socioeconomic Status (SES); Status; Symbolic Interactionism

Aging & Elderly Issues > Growing Old: Social Aging

Overview

Life Stages

Many social theorists have posited that human beings go through different stages in life. Although the titles and details vary according to the theory, psychologists generally use the following guidelines for life stages based on physical, psychological, and social development:

• Childhood (0-10 years of age) when one's primary focus in life is to learn and grow;
• Adolescence (11-19 years of age) when individuals struggle with the changes that puberty brings and find their place within society;
• Early adulthood (20-39 years of age) when one settles into a career or job and many find a mate and become a parent;
• Middle adulthood (40-65 years of age) when one takes stock of one's life and either changes or continues on the same path;
• Late adulthood (over 65 years of age) when one adjusts to the social and financial changes brought on by retirement, as well as changes in cognitive abilities and physical capabilities.

Each stage brings with it bodily changes ranging from continuing growth during childhood through early adulthood, slight declines during middle adulthood, and often significant loss of functioning in late adulthood. However, physiological changes are not the only changes that one undergoes over the span of life. Socially, one also changes as one deals the changing expectations of society and social roles from being a child to being a parent to being a grandparent and, often, to being taken care of by one's own children.

When one experiences these changes and life transitions varies from individual to individual, however. As far as "old age" is concerned, most individuals consider themselves to be middle-aged until they are approximately 75 years of age, not 65. Up until this point, most people continue to be socially active, politically influential, and many continue to be physically vigorous. Most people who are employed retire from their jobs during this period, although the transition into happy retirement is easiest if this is seen as a choice that the person makes for him/herself. In general, most of the "young-old" consider themselves to be just as satisfied with their lives as they have been throughout their adulthood. During this time, people tend to look inward and make adjustments to their attitudes and lifestyles that allow them to adjust to the physiological changes in their bodies that cannot be altered. In many cases, this means that they interact with other people less often. However, although social interaction may decrease during late adulthood, people generally deem their relationships to be more satisfying, fulfilling, and supportive than the relationships of their earlier years. However, as long as they have a social network of at least three strong relationships with friends or relatives, most people find themselves content.

Theories of Social Aging

Disengagement Theory

There are a number of theories of social aging. According to the structural functionalists, society and older individuals mutually sever many relationships during the aging process. This disengagement theory attempts to explain the observations associated with aging on both the macro level (i.e., society and the population at large) and on the micro level (i.e., individual, family, and group) as well as the declines that occur with age in individuals physical, cognitive, and psychological functioning as well as in the social interactions. Disengagement theory is based on a study of elderly individuals in good health and relatively comfortable economic circumstances. According to this theory, as people age, they voluntarily drop out of their earlier social roles (e.g., employee, volunteer, spouse, reader) and allow younger people within the society to take on these positions. This mutual social disengagement also allows older people to prepare for death. In addition, disengagement theory posits that as people age, they pass their social roles on to the next generation. For example, many older people willingly give up their roles as obsessed career person or strict parent to become, instead, relaxed world traveler or doting grandparent, roles that were, in turn, relinquished to them by the previous generation. According to disengagement theory, this practice of passing on social roles helps ensure the stability of the society.

Further, according to disengagement theory, it is not only the elder who withdraws from society, but also the society that withdraws from the elder, voluntarily breaking ties or otherwise disengaging. In fact, many proponents of disengagement theory posit that society should help older individuals pass on their social roles and disengage in order to help maintain the stability of society. According to this theory, society may ease the way for social disengagement of older persons in many ways. For example, as people continue to age, society may offer various programs designed to meet the needs of older individuals such as active living senior communities, retirement homes, or special education or social programs designed specifically for senior citizens. Further, according to this theory, retirement packages, pensions, and old-age economic support policies (e.g., Social Security, Medicare) reward older individuals for disengaging from society. However, although such programs are intended to meet the specific needs of the older individual, they also segregate older individuals and help them to disengage from mainstream society and may take away status and responsibility. Further, social disengagement and senior programs may result in age stratification in which the older people are demoted within the social stratification because of their reduced status and income. This situation can result in ageism; discrimination not on the basis of the physical or mental capabilities, but purely on the basis of age, such as in the implementation of mandatory retirement ages in some jobs. Ageism is another way in which society disengages from older individuals and segregates them away from mainstream society.

Activity Theory

Not all social theorists hold with disengagement theory, however. Symbolic interactionists, for example, posit that those elderly individuals who remain active will be the most well adjusted. Proponents of this activity theory maintain that although older adults may not necessarily want to (or can) engage in the same activities as they did when they were younger (e.g., being employed, raising a family), they still have the same needs as other people for social interaction. In addition, medical research increasingly supports the conclusion that social interaction and the maintenance of relationships and activities into later life is correlated with a lower decline in cognitive abilities than in people who do not have such activities and interests. In 2012, Alan J. Gow, Erik L. Mortensen, and Kirsten Avlund published the results of their thirty-year longitudinal cohort study of 802 individuals from Glostrup, Denmark, who were all born in 1914. The study tested the participants’ cognitive abilities and collected information about their leisure and physical abilities to see if there was a correlation between physical activity level and cognitive ability over time. The researchers concluded that while greater activity was consistently associated with higher cognitive ability, this association was largely due to differences that persisted throughout the study, although there was a small but significant correlation between higher levels of physical activity at age 60 and 70 and less cognitive decline. As opposed to disengagement theory, activity theory posits that withdrawal from society is bad for the individual who is reduced in status, isolated from society, and stripped of his/her role set as well as for society which loses the wisdom and insights that can only be gained by the accumulation of years of experience.

Activity theorists suggest that there are a number of different categories of activities that can enhance the quality of life for aging individuals. These include:

• Informal social activities (e.g., social interaction with family and friends);
• Formal social activities (e.g., participation in group functions);
• Solitary activities (e.g., reading, watching television).

A number of empirical studies have found that older individuals who are active by the above standards tend to be happier, have higher self-esteem, and a better quality of life. Activity theory has replaced disengagement theory as the dominant social theory of aging and has been the foundation for a number of successful aging programs. Activity theory has informed the philosophy of many nursing homes that have developed programs to increase the activities and social interactions of their residents as a way of improving their quality of life. This approach is thought by its proponents not only to be useful in improving the self-esteem and quality of life of older individuals, but also as a way to maximize their functional capabilities and help in rehabilitation efforts related to psychological and physical disabilities.

Conflict Theory

However, neither disengagement theory nor activity theory completely explains the reality of the sociology of aging and elderly adults. Although a great deal of research has been done that supports the positive relationship between social interaction and activity on the well-being of older adults, many of the details about why this occurs and under what conditions are still missing. Social conflict theorists also criticize both these theories because they fail to consider the impact of social structure on patterns of aging. For example, neither disengagement theory nor activity theory explains why the level or type of social interaction needs to change in old age. Conflict theorists criticize disengagement and activity theories because they fail to take into account the effects of social stratification and class on elderly persons.

In general, individuals who are in the upper classes have better health and vigor and are less likely to be dependent in their later years than are individuals from the lower classes. This may be due in part to the fact that more affluent persons typically have better or even greater access to health care, consistent access to food and medication, and can afford to have the help they need for necessary everyday activities (e.g., meal preparation, shopping, housecleaning) than do less affluent persons who often have to do these things themselves or do without them. Further, working class individuals are often at higher risk for job-related injuries or illnesses that make their later years more difficult or even shorten their lives. More affluent older persons may not see any change in their life styles except those necessitated by health-related issues. Less affluent people, on the other hand, may have to learn to live within the constraints of a fixed income and depend heavily on Social Security and Medicare. Older people are often the victims of ageism and unable to get jobs with the same income level as they could in their youth or forced to live on the fixed income from Social Security or a pension. This also can cause a loss of social status for older persons. Because of such facts, conflict theorists see the elderly as being victims of social stratification and capitalism.

Modernization Theory

Another theory that attempts to take into account many of the observations in other theories and compensate for their shortcomings is modernization theory. According to modernization theorists, industrialization has resulted in ageism and negative attitudes toward aging individuals for many reasons. Modernization theorists note that with the advent of industrialization, societies increasingly no longer revolve around the family, and many workers leave home in order to work in factories or other centralized places of employment. Further, as villages and other small communities become increasingly less independent and rely on each other for the exchange of goods and services, the family loses its unique position as a source of power and authority within society. In addition, because of the technology required as an infrastructure for industrialization, there is a need for more formalized education for many jobs in order to teach its members about its technology and to advance its technology. Although in preindustrial society, sufficient education can often be provided in the home on or the job, the level of education required by industrialization typically requires an external education system, thereby shifting the focus of knowledge and authority away from the family and its elders and onto other, "official" sources. The wisdom of age becomes insufficient to earn the respect of younger generations as the knowledge necessary to use new technology continues to advance and as the younger generations obtain more formal education, often beyond that of their elders. This results in further social segregation and lowered social status for elders.

Similarly, many of the jobs in which elders were previously employed have become redundant and obsolete due to automation and technology. Postindustrial jobs tend to be based on new technologies that make the skills of many older individuals out of date and the individuals unable to compete for newer jobs. As a result, elders may experience a downward shift in socioeconomic status not only if they cannot gain the skills necessary to stay current in their field, but also if they need to learn a new career and start from the bottom of the career ladder. As a result of these trends, older workers frequently choose retirement as the more attractive option to continuing to work. However, retirement brings with it reduced socioeconomic status not only because of the reduction of income due to living on one's retirement savings or Social Security, but also because of the reduced social status in a society where one is frequently defined by one's job title even in social situations. Many older adults, therefore, become increasingly dependent on their children even when they would prefer to be independent.

Applications

All of these theories of social aging are based on real world observations and have important things to say about the social aspects of older adults. However, none of these theories of social aging appear to both adequately and accurately account for all aspects of this phenomenon. In addition, there are always examples that run contrary to the expectations of theorists and society alike: the older individuals who continue to work until the day they die, the people who retire early before they are technically "old," or the elder statesmen who continue to observe and advise long past the time when most of their peers have retired. But in the main, it can be said that most people do at some point in late adulthood change social roles as they leave jobs and retire. In some cases, this is a cause for further social involvement; in other cases, it is a cause for reduced social involvement. However, despite the musings of disengagement theorists, healthy aging depends on keeping mentally, physically, and socially active as much as one can for as long as one can. How this is defined, however, may be different for each individual.

Successful Aging

Theory aside, practitioners suggest a number of ways to improve the quality of life of older individuals. In order to do this, the emphasis is often on the concept of "successful" aging. Although this concept may sound a little strange (after all, we all age from the moment we are born and will do so successfully until the day we die), behavioral scientists use this term to refer to aging with both enhanced quality of life and increased longevity. Specifically, the World Health Organization defines aging well in terms of "complete physical, mental, and social well-being, rather than simply the absence of disease…" (Friedrich, 2003). It is the observation of many behavioral scientists that in order to successfully age, it is important to engage in a lifestyle that is physically, psychologically, and socially healthy. For example, studies have found that those who eat right, exercise appropriately, keep their minds active, and continue to interact with others generally have a better quality of life than those who do not. However, even in the early twenty-first century, most practitioners are more concerned about the detection and treatment of physical illness than on the prevention and optimization of the well-being and quality of life of the older person. In part, this is because we still do not thoroughly understand the aging process and the interaction between the physiological, psychological, and social aspects of aging. Further research is required to better understand these factors and their interactions on the quality of life of older individuals and on successful aging.

Age Related Concerns

In addition, consideration must be given to several age-related concerns.

• First, society needs to better accommodate individual differences irrespective of age. Just because someone is past an arbitrary retirement age, for example, does not mean that the person is incapable of continuing to work productively or that s/he wants to.
• Second, the phenomenon of ageism exists in part because of age stratification and age segregation within society. In order to help ensure healthy and successful aging, older people need to be better integrated into society.
• Third, public policies that allow or encourage ageism, age segregation, and age stratification need to be reconsidered in order continue to support older individuals as important members of society.

Conclusion

There are a number of theories of social aging. Although all are based on observations of the real world situation of older adults; to date, none of them comprehensively accounts for all social aspects of aging. Similarly, none of them adequately accounts for the wide range of individual differences in the ways that older individuals interact with society. More research is required not only to better understand social aging, but also to better understand the interaction between the physical, psychological, and social aspects of aging. In addition, it is important to recognize that as advancements in medicine and health care bring about increases in longevity and quality of life, older definitions of good aging may need to be rethought. As older adults continue to be productive members of society much longer than was previously likely, it is also necessary to rethink social policy and attitudes in order to not marginalize this growing segment of the population.

Terms & Concepts

Activity Theory: A symbolic interactionist perspective on aging that posits that those elderly individuals who remain active will be the most well-adjusted.

Ageism: Discrimination based on age or discrimination against the elderly.

Age Stratification: The hierarchical ranking of groups by age within society. In age stratification, different social roles are ascribed to individuals during different periods in their lives. These roles are not necessarily based on their physical capabilities and constraints at different times in their lives.

Cognitive Ability: A skill or aptitude related to perception, learning, memory, understanding, awareness, reasoning, judgment, intuition, or language. Cognitive abilities include all forms of knowing (e.g., perceiving, conceiving, remembering, reasoning, judging, imagining, and problem solving) and thinking.

Conflict Perspective: An approach to analyzing social behavior that is based on the assumption that social behavior is best explained and understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.

Disengagement Theory: A functionalist theory of aging which posits that society and the individual mutually severs many relationships during the aging process.

Functionalism: A theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of social order and the relationship between the various parts (structures) in society and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole. Also referred to as structural functionalism.

Industrialization: The use of mechanization to produce the economic goods and services within a society. Historically, industrialization is a society's transition between farm production and manufacturing production. Industrialization is associated with factory production, division of labor, and the concentration of industries and populations within certain geographical areas and concomitant urbanization.

Modernization Theory: A sociological perspective of globalization that posits that less developed countries will eventually industrialize in the manner of more developed countries and that the process of modernization will gradually improve the quality of life of its members due to political and economic forces. Modernization is thought to affect virtually all countries that have been affected by technological change.

Quality of Life: The sense of well-being that an individual feels regarding his/her life circumstances and life style; the ability to enjoy one's normal life activities. As opposed to standard of living, quality of life is both intangible and subjective.

Social Role: A set of expectations placed on members of a group of people with a given social position or status within society.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.

Status: A socially established position within a society or other social structure that carries with it a recognized level of prestige.

Symbolic Interactionism: A theory that assumes that one's self-concept is created through the interpretation of the symbolic gestures, words, actions, and appearances of others as observed during social interactions.

Bibliography

Bernstein, D. A. & Nash, P. W. (2002). Essentials of psychology (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Friedrich, D. (2003). Personal and societal intervention strategies for successful ageing. Ageing International, 28, 3-36. Retrieved July 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16467435&site=ehost-live

Gow, A. J., Mortensen, E. L., & Avlund, K. (2012). Activity participation and cognitive aging from age 50 to 80 in the Glostrup 1914 cohort. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 60, 1831-1838. Retrieved November 14, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=82370166

Hokenstad, M., & Restorick Roberts, A. (2013). The United Nations Plans for a future free of ageism and elder invisibility. Generations, 37, 76-79. Retrieved November 14, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=86024540

Schaefer, R. T. (2002). Sociology: A brief introduction (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Luong, G., Charles, S. T., & Fingerman, K. L. (2011). Better with age: Social relationships across adulthood. Journal Of Social & Personal Relationships, 28, 9-23. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=58766182

Suggested Reading

Fairhurst, E. (2005). Theorizing growing and being older: Connecting physical health, well-being and public health. Critical Public Health, 15, 27-38. Retrieved July 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=17211081&site=ehost-live

Livi-Bacci, M. (1982). Social and biological aging: Contradictions of development. Population and Development Review, 8, 771-781. Retrieved July 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16499365&site=ehost-live

Mendes, F. (2013). Active ageing: A right or a duty?. Health Sociology Review, 22, 174-185. Retrieved November 1, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89768704

Turner, B. S. (1989). Ageing, status politics and sociological theory. British Journal of Sociology, 40, 588-606. Retrieved July 14, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=6790138&site=ehost-live

Uhlenberg, P. (2013). Demography is not destiny: The challenges and opportunities of global population aging. Generations, 37, 12-18. Retrieved November 14, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=86024530