Hmong immigrants
Hmong immigrants are a distinct Asian ethnic group that migrated to the United States, primarily after the Vietnam War. Originally from the mountainous regions of Laos, they began arriving in significant numbers following the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975, which facilitated their relocation amidst political turmoil and persecution in Laos. By 2000, there were approximately 170,000 Hmong in the U.S., and this population grew to over 327,000 by 2019. The Hmong community tends to concentrate in states like California, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan, largely due to strong kinship ties and a collectivist culture.
Many Hmong immigrants faced challenges integrating into American society due to their agricultural backgrounds and limited education, leading to a slower assimilation process. Nevertheless, over the years, Hmong Americans have made significant economic contributions, particularly in urban areas like Minneapolis-St. Paul, where they have established vibrant communities. In the 2020s, the Hmong community has actively sought recognition as a distinct racial group, highlighting their unique history and contributions during the Vietnam War. This move culminated in a more accurate classification in the 2023 U.S. Census, emphasizing their identity as Southeast Asians. Despite facing challenges, including the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated racial animus, the Hmong community continues to strive for recognition and advancement in American society.
Hmong immigrants
SIGNIFICANCE: The Hmong are one of the most recent Asian immigrant groups to come to the United States. Their main home is in the northern mountain regions of Laos. The Hmong and other Laotian immigrants were helped by the passage of the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act of 1975 in their efforts to relocate after the Vietnam War ended.
The Hmong people have no significant history of immigration to the United States before 1970. By the year 2000, Hmong immigrants numbered around 170,000, according to U.S. Census data. In 2019, that number had risen to 327,000. When they began migrating to the United States, they were encouraged by various settlement agencies to disperse throughout the country. However, because of their kinship patterns and collectivist nature, they instead tended to congregate within communities where other Hmong lived. Consequently, a majority of these immigrants settled in California, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Alaska and North Carolina also have rising Hmong populations.
American Involvement with the Hmong
During the Vietnam War, Hmong villagers worked alongside the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in their fight against the North Vietnamese in what has been called a “secret war” in Laos. Their assistance on what was supposed to be neutral territory resulted in problems for Hmong veterans on several different levels. After the South Vietnam capital of Saigon fell to North Vietnamese forces and the war ended, Laos was taken over by Pathet Lao communist forces, and the Hmong were targeted for reprisals because of their support of U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia. At risk of severe retaliation from the Lao government, Hmong and other Laotian exiles escaped to Thailand, where they were placed in refugee camps. Upon resettlement to the United States, the Hmong immigrants achieved refugee status largely because of their war efforts on behalf of the Americans as well as their need to escape the communist regime in Laos.
Immigration after 1975
In response to the plight of Indochinese communities such as the Hmong after the Vietnam War, the U.S. Congress enacted legislation to enable Southeast Asian refugees to come to the United States. Many immigrants from that region were well-educated and possessed valuable job skills. In contrast, however, a large part of the Hmong immigrants were poorly educated and were unskilled workers, as most had been farmers in their home country, and other aspects of the Hmong economy were not highly advanced. These factors, among others, influenced group assimilation processes even though American officials and citizens were initially supportive of Hmong migration.
Between 1981 and 1986, only a few thousand Hmong refugees came to the United States. Admissions increased between 1987 and 1994 when more than 50,000 Hmong entered the country. From 2004 until 2006, pressure from human rights groups contributed to the resettlement to the United States of an additional 15,000 Hmong immigrants from a refugee camp in Thailand. Afterward, immigration from northern Laos to the United States slowed.
Hmong in the United States
Hmong communities in the United States have continued to grow. By the 2010 census, there were 260,073 people of Hmong descent living in the United States. Data collected in 2020 put that number well over 300,000. Most Hmong Americans reside in the states of Minnesota and Wisconsin, with about 80,000 in the Minneapolis-St. Paul-Bloomington area alone. The first Hmong refugees came from a subsistence and agrarian background, but later waves of immigrants came with some knowledge of technology and Western culture. Overall, the Hmong American population has become increasingly young and highly urban. In fact, the Minneapolis-St. Paul area has the largest Hmong urban population in the world. The majority of Hmong Minnesotans have already become second or third-generation American-born citizens.
With a relatively short history in the United States, the Hmong still struggle with cultural identity issues. The initial culture shock that occurred during their first wave of immigration resulted in a slower assimilation rate than was anticipated, even though some younger Hmong Americans adapted relatively quickly. The Hmong have retained their collectivist family structures, and this has helped them achieve a level of economic stability. Like those of Vietnamese immigrants, Hmong families often pool resources and incomes in order to buy homes, businesses, and cars.
In Minnesota, Hmong residents generate millions of dollars in revenues annually, and entrepreneurs have successfully revitalized the University Avenue area of St. Paul. Even though the first wave of Hmong immigrants was not as prepared to cope with the technologically advanced capitalistic society of the United States, over the years, they have become upwardly mobile, a situation that indicates a positive future.
2020s: A Distinct Identity
As the COVID-19 pandemic, which began in 2020, swept over the United States, the Hmong joined many minority communities in feeling disproportionate negative impacts. In addition to the health-related aspects, many Hmong Americans felt the racial animus directed against all Asian communities. For the Hmong, these sentiments were especially bitter given their record of service to the United States and the heavy costs of displacements and persecutions that followed.
In the 2020s, Hmong Americans led efforts to secure recognition as a distinct racial community. Many Hmong believed their community remained submerged as a general class of Asians. A step in this direction arrived in 2024 when the U.S. Census Bureau agreed to a more accurate categorization of Hmong Americans as Southeast Asians rather than the existing East Asians. This categorization went into effect in the 2023 U.S. Census. Similar to the negative associations which followed COVID-19, Hmong community members believed their previous identification led to the marginalization of the unique contributions they made to the U.S. war effort in Vietnam.
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