Indigenous People of Central America and Costa Rica

The indigenous people of Central America and Costa Rica include the native peoples of the countries of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, and Costa Rica. Central America is part of the North American continent and is situated between the country of Mexico and the South American continent. Humans have inhabited Central American territories for thousands of years, with the earliest cultures crossing into the region tens of thousands of years ago. Originally inhabited by hunter-gatherers, Central America eventually saw the introduction of agriculture and the permanent settlement of distinct cultures. Many cultural groups erupted across the region throughout the centuries, leading to the formation of hundreds of individual tribes and language groups. Great civilizations sprang up over time, with the Mayan people representing the peak of ancient Central American society.

Following European colonization, indigenous population numbers drastically decreased. Ancient traditions and religious customs were banished by Spanish conquerors as they attempted to convert Central Americans to Christianity. Disease and war also devastated indigenous populations. A number of tribes were able to isolate themselves within Central America's dense forests and remained virtually untouched by European influence over the next few centuries. Those who were conquered managed to preserve many of their age-old traditions up until their respective proclamations of independence. Central America's indigenous populations were able to grow in the period following independence. Numerous groups continued to exist throughout the regions of Central America, with many human rights organizations working to protect their lands and culture.

Brief History

Humans inhabited regions of Central America, including Costa Rica, throughout much of the pre-Columbian era of American history. This period encompasses the centuries before the indigenous people of the Americas encountered European explorers. Historians believe nomadic tribes from other areas of the world crossed over into North America about twenty thousand years ago by traveling across the Bering Strait. The groups then made their way down into a region known as Mesoamerica over the next few centuries. Mesoamerica consisted of much of modern-day Mexico's territory as well as a great deal of Central America, primarily the northern regions.

A number of tribes eventually settled in various parts of this region and in areas of modern-day Costa Rica over the next few hundred years. Central America was home to a number of great Mesoamerican civilizations. Costa Rica retained a primarily simple lifestyle in its early history, relying on small group agriculture to subsist. Costa Rica's influences primarily came from South American tribes such as those found in the Amazon rain forest. Many modern-day indigenous Central Americans are descendants of these early tribes.

The earliest inhabitants of Mesoamerica and what is now Costa Rica and Panama were hunter-gatherer groups. Between 7000 and 2000 BCE, the hunter-gatherer culture began to be replaced by agriculture and animal domestication in Mesoamerica. These groups established settlements and villages, cultivating crops such as corn, beans, and vegetables to sustain themselves. These early villages were often arranged around sacred sites and temples dedicated to the various gods the people worshipped. Archaeologists date the earliest Mesoamerican villages to between 2000 and 1500 BCE. Over the next few centuries, these small villages grew into expansive cities with large populations. Farther south in the Costa Rica and Panama regions, people maintained distinct cultural groups with much lower populations.

Some of the earliest civilizations inhabiting Central America include the Olmec, Mayan, and Aztec cultures. Beginning about 1500 BCE, Mesoamerica was dominated by the Olmec civilization. The Olmec constructed great cities out of stone and brick, erecting giant stone heads that survived for centuries after the culture's demise. The Olmec were skilled craftsman and provided the earliest evidence of the shamanic religion in the area. Although no one knows what exactly led to the end of the Olmec culture, historians date their final departure from the region sometime between 400 and 200 BCE.

The Olmec had a profound influence on surrounding Mesoamerican cultures, particularly the Mayan people. Although the earliest Mayan settlements date back to 1800 BCE, the Mayan people did not reach their peak until about 250 CE, which is referred to as the classical period of Mayan history (250–900 CE). During this time, the Mayan population drastically increased. Some estimates hold that the Mayan population may have reached as many as two million people during this golden age. About forty cities sprang up during this period, and the Mayan presence was felt by surrounding regions.

The Mayans achieved many great feats in astronomy, mathematics, architecture, and art. Their culture came to dominate much of modern-day northern Central America by 500 CE. The classical Mayan civilization was divided into three areas, each of which contained multiple Mayan groups and distinct cultural and environmental differences. In the north, the Mayan lowlands laid on the Yucatan Peninsula. The southern lowlands comprised northern Guatemala and areas of Belize, Honduras, and Mexico. Lastly, the mountains of southern Guatemala contained the southern Mayan highlands. Widespread trading networks connected most of these regions. Language was an obstacle for some, however. Although the early Mayan people all spoke a single language, almost every region in classical Mayan territory had its own language. Despite the proximity of each indigenous culture, most of these languages were entirely different from one another.

The Mayans began abandoning their major sites in the southern lowlands between the eight and ninth centuries CE. The reason for this departure is unknown to historians, but some believe climate change, environmental degradation, warfare, and overpopulation may have been factors. Despite the decline in the south, other Mayan regions continued to flourish for several more centuries. Most Mayans no longer resided in the great cities and sites of the golden era, however. By the time European explorers arrived in Central America in the late fifteenth century, most Mayans were living in villages and subsisted on agriculture.

Prior to European contact, it is estimated that some three million people inhabited the Mayan centers of Central America while somewhere between four hundred thousand and five hundred thousand inhabited Costa Rica. These numbers drastically decreased following the arrival of Europeans. The Spanish began colonizing the northern and southern regions of Central America in the 1500s. They divided these regions into viceroyalties, which were put under the control of viceroys. Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica were known as the Kingdom of Guatemala and were part of the viceroyalty of New Spain, which also included Belize and Mexico. Panama was allocated to the viceroyalty of New Granada.

Under Spanish control, the indigenous people of Central America experienced very cruel treatment. Many were enslaved and forced to work as laborers within the Spanish colonies. Many more died of European and African diseases, such as smallpox and measles, brought over by settlers and slaves. Conflict between the natives and the Europeans also led to heavy losses among the indigenous tribes. Some indigenous people entered into relations with the Spanish settlers, producing offspring that came to be referred to as mestizos. The mestizo population gradually increased over the next few centuries and came to dominate the general population of the Central American regions.

Central American colonization and its effects on the indigenous population persisted for more than three centuries. Millions of indigenous Central Americans perished during these years. Many of those who survived did so because they fled their homelands and escaped deep into the forests. Indigenous survivors were able to amply repopulate their numbers over the next few centuries, however. Most civilizations of Central America had declared independence from their colonizers by the mid-1800s, while Panama and Belize did not achieve independence until the 1900s. By the twenty-first century, indigenous populations in Central America had risen by the millions. Indigenous peoples remained a minority throughout most of these regions, however.

Topic Today

The Mayan way of life survived European colonization in many areas of Central America. Although the Spaniards attempted to Christianize the region, the Mayans managed to preserve their religious traditions in a number of ways, often combining aspects of ancient Mayan mysticism with Christian customs. Mayan groups that managed to escape colonization were able to survive in the region untainted by European influence. Approximately twenty-eight Mayan groups still exist within Mexico and Central America. Alongside the Mayan, Central American indigenous populations contained groups whose influence came from the north in Mexico and the south from areas of South America. Tribes from these areas moved into the Central American region for various reasons over the centuries and produced a wide range of indigenous settlements across the area.

In present-day Central America, possibly hundreds of indigenous tribes still exist and are classified by the language group they speak. An estimated two hundred languages are spoken by tribes throughout Central America. Many of these groups are of pure Mayan descent, although many other indigenous tribes hailing from other ancient cultures exist in the area. Each country's indigenous population varies in diversity. A number of mixed indigenous populations consisting of non–Central American ethnic groups also reside in Central America.

Belize contains only a small indigenous population consisting of multiple Mayan tribes surviving on subsistence farming. The tribes include the Kekchi, Yucatec, and Mopan groups. In Honduras, the majority of indigenous people are Mayans, Lenca, Miskitos, Mayangnas, Pechs, and Tolupans. Few indigenous tribes remain in El Salvador. Most Salvadorans are Pipils, Lenca, or Kakawira. A few Mayan tribes reside in the Salvadoran area of Ahuachapán near Guatemala.

Most of Nicaragua's indigenous population lives on the Caribbean coast. The country's indigenous peoples include the Rama, Mayagna, and Miskitu. Almost all of Guatemala's indigenous population is of Mayan descent, with a very small percentage of indigenous tribes being non-Mayan. Guatemalan Mayans vary by social class, and many live within Guatemala's cities. Panama contains several distinct indigenous groups, including the Guaymi, Kuna, Embera-Wounaan, Naso, and Bokota.

Costa Rica's indigenous population primarily lives in isolation in the jungles near the Panamanian border. Most of the country's indigenous tribes are of Macro-Chibcha origin, hailing from the northern region of South America. Many indigenous people also come from Mesoamerican origins, tracing back to the Mayans and Aztecs of Mexico and Guatemala. Costa Rica's Macro-Chibcha indigenous groups include the Cabecares, Borucas, Bribris, Térrabas, and Guaymíes. Its Mesoamerican tribes include the Chorotegas, Huetares, and Guatusos.

According to 2010 population surveys, the indigenous populations of Central America varied greatly by country. Guatemala had the greatest indigenous population, with about 5.9 million indigenous people existing within the country, accounting for 41 percent of the general population. In Honduras, about 7 percent of the population was of indigenous descent, amounting to about 537,000 people. Nicaragua housed about 520,000 indigenous people, accounting for about 8.9 percent of the country's population. About 420,000 indigenous people lived in Panama, making up 12.3 percent of the overall population. Costa Rican indigenous populations amounted to about 105,000, or 2.4 percent of the total population. El Salvador's indigenous population was the smallest at 14,500, or roughly 0.2 percent. The population counts in the countries of Costa Rica and Panama showed a significant increase in the overall indigenous population since the previous census in 2001.

Central American indigenous tribes live off the land in various ways, often relying on agriculture for sustenance. This type of lifestyle is sustainable for most, although some take part in their respective country's economy for food and shelter. Many indigenous peoples of Central America live in poverty and endure economic, cultural, and political exclusion, however. Indigenous rights groups emerged in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries to help protect the land and human rights of indigenous populations in these areas. The indigenous people of Central America play a crucial role in the preservation of the region's forests. A large percentage of Central America's forests are protected under indigenous land rights, which have helped preserve thousands of acres of natural land and water resources.

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